reading

Contents

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chocolate Team (1998–2009)

PART I Beginnings and Religion

CHAPTER 1: Cacao Use in Yucatán Among the Pre-Hispanic Maya

Introduction

The Role of Cacao in the Northern Maya Area

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 2: Tempest in a Chocolate Pot

Introduction

Origin of the Word Cacao

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 3: Ancient Gods and Christian Celebrations

Introduction

How Cacao Came to Humans

Contemporary Mayan Ritual Uses of Cacao

Arrival of Christianity

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 4: Chocolate and Sinful Behaviors

Introduction

Chocolate and the Inquisition

Inquisition Case Records

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 5: Nation of Nowhere

Introduction

The Nation of Nowhere

NEW LANDS: THE WEST INDIES, VENEZUELA, AND BRAZIL

Colonial America

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART II Medicine and Recipes

CHAPTER 6: Medicinal Chocolate in New Spain, Western Europe, and North America

Introduction

Medicinal Chocolate: Indigenous and Early New World Accounts

Chocolate and Medicine in North America: A Sampling of Themes

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 7: Chocolate and the Boston Smallpox Epidemic of 1764

Introduction

Chocolate and Smallpox Treatment in 18th Century North America

Smallpox in Boston

CONCLUDING COMMENTS ON CHOCOLATE AND 1764 SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC

Acknowledgments

CHATPER 8 From Bean to Beverage

Introduction

Chocolate Recipes

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 9: Chocolate as Medicine

Introduction

Cookbooks

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART III Serving and Advertising

CHAPTER 10: Chocolate Preparation and Serving Vessels in Early North America

Introduction

Preparing Chocolate

Chocolate Pots

Chocolate Drinking in the 19th century

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 11: Silver Chocolate Pots of Colonial Boston1

Introduction

The Boston Chocolate Pots

The “Excellent Nectar”

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 12: Is It A Chocolate Pot?

Introduction: The Chocolatière and the Refinement of Aristocratic Manners in Early Modern France

The Function of the Chocolatière

Chocolatières in Precious and Other Metals

Chocolatières in Porcelain

Chocolatières and Portraiture, 18th Century France

Decline and Renewal: The French Revolution and After

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 13: Commercial Chocolate Pots

Introduction

Findings

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 14: Role of Trade Cards in Marketing Chocolate During the Late 19th Century

Introduction

Trade Cards

Potent Pictures

The Promise

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 15: Commercial Chocolate Posters

Introduction

Findings

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 16: Chocolate at the World’s Fairs, 1851–1964

Introduction

Discovering the Botany and Agriculture of Cacao

Discovering the Taste of Chocolate

Creating Corporate Identity

The Architecture of Chocolate

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART IV Economics, Education, and Crime

CHAPTER 17: Pirates, Prizes, and Profits

Introduction

Shipping News Documents

Research Methodology

Results

Links to Modern Commodity Research

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 18: How Much Is That Cocoa in the Window?

Introduction

Price Information: Cautions and Caveats

Research Methodology

Descriptive Statistics

Results

Purchase Choices Available to a “Representative Adult Male”

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 19: C” Is for Chocolate

Introduction

Education Materials

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 20: Chocolate, Crime, and the Courts

Introduction

The Old Bailey Trial Archive (London)

Analysis and Commentary

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 21: Dark Chocolate

Introduction

Chocolate–Associated Crimes

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART V Colonial and Federal Eras (Part 1)

CHAPTER 22: Chocolate and Other Colonial Beverages

Introduction

Alcoholic Beverages

Nonalcoholic Beverages

Hot Liquors

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 23: Chocolate Production and Uses in 17th and 18th Century North America

Introduction

Food of the Gods and Turmoil in the Caribbean

American Production and Manufacturing

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 24: Chocolate’s Early History in Canada

Introduction

L’arbre qui s’apelle cacau: Chocolate’s Earliest Connection to Canada

"Chocolate—Here Made”—Early English Settlement in Canada

“To Be Sold Cheap for Ready Money”—Early Canadian Chocolate Advertisements

“Our Only Spark of Comfort”: Chocolate in Canadian Exploration, Fur Trade, and Early Arctic Voyages

Aboriginal Encounters with Chocolate

Strength to the Whole System”: Chocolate and Cocoa Manufacture in Canada

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 25: A Necessary Luxury

Introduction

Louisbourg in New France

Les Compagnies Franches de la Marine and Chocolate

Louisbourg Society and Chocolate

From Martinique to Louisbourg: The Colonial Trade of Chocolate

Maritime War: Chocolate Prizes

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 26: Chocolate Manufacturing and Marketing in Massachusetts, 1700–1920

Introduction

Small-Scale, Individualized Colonial Chocolate Use

Increased Trade Prior to Revolution

Revolution

The First American Large-Scale Chocolate Works

Chocolate: Beginning of Mass Production and Consumption in New England

Walter Baker and the Marketing Revolution of the Mid-19th Century

Reform, Health, and the Civil War

Turn-of-the-Century Mass Marketing to “Proper” American Women and Men

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 27: Boston Chocolate

Introduction

Boston Chocolate

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART VI Colonial and Federal Eras (Part 2)

CHAPTER 28: Dutch Cacao Trade in New Netherland During the 17th and 18th Centuries

Introduction

Trade

Artifacts

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 29: Chocolate Consumption and Production in New York’s Upper Hudson River Valley, 1730–1830

Introduction

Early Consumption of Chocolate in the Upper Hudson Valley

Chocolate Manufacturing in Albany

Acknowledgments

Endnotes

CHAPTER 30: Chocolate Makers in 18th Century Pennsylvania

Introduction

Quakers

Mary Keen Crathorne Roker of Philadelphia

A Look Inside a Mill

STEP ONE: ROASTING

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 31: Breakfasting on Chocolate

Introduction

Chocolate in Hospitality and Diplomacy

Supplying the Armies with Chocolate

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 32: Chocolate and North American Whaling Voyages

Introduction

Whaling and Chocolate

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART VII Southeast/Southwest Borderlands and California

CHAPTER 33: Blood, Conflict, and Faith

Introduction

Spanish Florida

Southwest Borderlands (Arizona, New Mexico, Texas)

Era of Political Transition and Independent Mexico

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 34: Sailors, Soldiers, and Padres

Introduction

Cacao and Chocolate in California

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 35: From Gold Bar to Chocolate Bar

Introduction

Before the Gold Rush

Chocolate and the Gold Rush

Ghirardelli and Guittard Put California Chocolate on the Map

Diffusion and Diversity in California Chocolate in the Second Half of the 19th Century

Milk Chocolate, Refrigeration, and the Bar

Acknowledgments

PART VIII Caribbean and South America

CHAPTER 36: Caribbean Cocoa

Introduction

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Cocoa Planting in the Caribbean

Cocoa Producers

Technological Changes

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 37: Caribbean Chocolate

Introduction

Chocolate and Its Medicinal Properties

Methods of Preparation

Institutional Use of Cocoa

Manufacturing

The Caribbean Cocoa Trade

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 38: History of Cacao Cultivation and Chocolate Consumption in Cuba

Introduction

Cuban Cacao and Chocolate: The Beginnings

Nineteenth Century Developments

Cacao Production

Chocolate and Chocolate Making in Travelers’Accounts

Cacao and Chocolate During the Mid-19th Century

Consequences of the Independence Wars and the First Cuban Republic

The 20th Century

Chocolate in Cuba After 1959

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 39: History of Cacao and Chocolate in Cuban Literature, Games, Music, and Culinary Arts

Introduction

Cocoa and Chocolate in Cuban Literature and Proverbs

Chocolate in Cuban Games and Music

Cuba Culinary Traditions

Cacao and Chocolate in Contemporary Cuban Cookbooks

Traditional Medicinal Uses of Cacao

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 40: Establishing Cacao Plantation Culture in the Atlantic World

Introduction

Cultivation in Brazil

Cacao as a Medicinal Plant

Missionaries, Native Americans, and Wild Cacao Collection in the Amazon

An Early Attempt to Transplant Cacao to Portuguese Colonies Outside Brazil

Cacao Plantations and Production in Bahia

The Portuguese and Cacao in São Tomé: Early Introduction of Cacao from Brazil

Transplanting the Cacao Plantation System from Brazil to West Africa

Finding Laborers: Contracts and Convicts from Cape Verde, Angola, and Mozambique

Rhythms of Work on Portuguese Colonial Cacao Plantations

Controversy Over Labor and The British Boycott

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART IX Europe and Asia

CHAPTER 41: Cure or Confection?

Introduction

Royal Chocolatier: Confectioner and Pharmacy Technician

Expansion of Brazilian Cacao Production and Consumption Within the Empire

Chocolate as a Recuperative Foodstuff in Portuguese Colonial Hospitals

Chocolate and the Portuguese Royal Court in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries

Images of Portuguese Elites’ Chocolate Consumption in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 42: Chocolate in France

Introduction: Chocolate Comes to France

Chocolate Enters French Culture

Chocolate’s Democratization

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 43: Commerce, Colonies, and Cacao

Introduction: The English Adopt Chocolate

Cacao, Colonization, and Clubs

Chocolate Penetrates English Culture

Joseph Fry and Fraud in Chocolate

Chocolate and the Struggle for Empire: Fighting the Americans and the French

Beginnings of the Industrialization of Chocolate Production

The Modern Era: Fry, Cadbury, and the Chocolate Bar

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 44: Chinese Chocolate

Introduction: Chocolate in China … An Untold Story

Jesuits and Franciscans

How Chocolate Came to China

Chinese Chocolate Export Ware

Chinese Chocolate in 19th Century French Texts

Chocolate and China to the Coming of the Bar

Acknowledgments

PART X Production, Manufacturing, and Contemporary Activities

CHAPTER 45: Cacao, Haciendas, and the Jesuits

Introduction

Presentation of the Documents

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 46: From Stone Metates to Steel Mills

Introduction: The Early Evolution of Chocolate Manufacturing

Chocolate Manufacturing, 1700–1850

Chocolate Manufacturing, 1850–1900

Chocolate Manufacturing in the 1900s

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 47: Adulteration

Introduction

Animal Adulterants

Vegetal Adulterants

Mineral Adulterants

Perspectives on Chocolate Adulteration

Defining Chocolate

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 48: Making Colonial Era Chocolate

Introduction

Why Make Chocolate?

Importance of Background Research

The Hand–Grinding Process

Is Making Chocolate Worth the Effort?

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 49: American Heritage Chocolate

Introduction

Background Research

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 50: Twenty-First Century Attitudes and Behaviors Regarding the Medicinal Use of Chocolate

Introduction

Objectives

Methods

Results

Future Research

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

PART XI Fieldwork, Methodology, and Interpretation

CHAPTER 51: Symbols from Ancient Times

Introduction

Methods

Background to the St. Augustine Documents

Introduction to the St. Augustine Documents: Summation of Events

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 52: Digging for Chocolate in Charleston and Savannah

Introduction

Data Collection

Chocolate in Charleston

Search for Chocolate in Savannah

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 53: Management of Cacao and Chocolate Data

Introduction

Organization and Types of Information Within the CRP

Motivations, Guiding Principles, and Design Challenges

Techniques Used to Build the Chocolate Research Portal

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Recommended Readings

CHAPTER 54: Base Metal Chocolate Pots In North America

Introduction

Base Metal Chocolate Pots: Description and Analysis

FORMS

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 55: Blue and Gray Chocolate

Introduction

Eyewitness and Firsthand Accounts, 1860–1865

Postwar Memories

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 56: Chocolate Futures

Introduction

Chocolate Futures

Expanded Geographical Coverage

Potential Thematic Coverage Opportunities

Conclusion

Epilogue

Acknowledgments

Appendices

CHAPTER 58

CHAPTER 59

CHAPTER 60

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 61

CHAPTER 62

CHAPTER 63

CHAPTER 64

CHAPTER 65

CHAPTER 66

1700–1800

1600–1699

1500—1599

CHAPTER 67

Lipids

Protein and Amino Acids

Carbohydrate

Vitamins and Minerals

Other Components

Conclusion

CHAPTER 68

Index

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Grivetti, Louis.
Chocolate : history, culture, and heritage / Louis Evan Grivetti, Howard-Yana Shapiro.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-12165-8 (cloth)
1. Chocolate–History. I. Shapiro, Howard-Yana. II. Title.
TX767.C5G747 2009
641.3'374–dc22

2008041834

To our parents and wives:

Blanche Irene Carpenter Grivetti
Rex Michael Grivetti
Georgette Stylanos Mayerakis Grivetti

Pesche Minke Shapiro
Yankel Shapiro
Nancy J. Shapiro

Foreword

The Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa had the right idea when he wrote early in the last century “Look, there’s no metaphysics on earth like chocolate.” Chocolate is a substance long regarded as magical, even supernatural, not to mention salubrious, today for its heart-healthy properties, yesterday because of a solid medicinal reputation as well as an aphrodisiacal one. Chocolate begins as seeds in a pod, that pod the fruit of the cacao tree Theobroma cacao. Not incidentally, the scientific name means “drink of the gods,” by way of continuing the metaphysical.

Until relatively recently nobody gave much thought to eating chocolate. Drink was its original use and, despite evidence of an Amazonian origin, Mesoamericans were probably its original users. Cacao was employed in ancient Maya ceremonies and rituals and later used in religious rites to keep alive the memory of Quezalcoatl, the god of the air who made earthly visits from time to time dispensing instructions on how to grow various foods, cacao among them. In addition cacao nibs (the almond-shaped seeds) were put to work as coins so that by the time the Europeans sailed into the New World cacao was well entrenched in all facets of Mesoamerican life: spiritual, nutritional, and financial.

The European phase of cacao’s history dates from 1502 when Columbus, then in the Gulf of Honduras on his forth voyage encountered natives who gave him the drink xocoatl made of cacao, honey, spices, and vanilla. The Explorer carried some nibs back to Spain, where they were viewed as curiosities only and it took another introduction in 1528 by Hernando Cortés (the conqueror of Mexico) to establish the plant in Iberia. Before long the Spaniards had figured out how to turn the nibs into an agreeable drink and by 1580 cocoa had achieved widespread popularity among Spain’s elite and its cacao plantations became sources of considerable wealth. As sugar grew cheaper and more readily available in the seventeenth century, chocolate spread across Europe, chocolate houses sprang up and cocoa, although expensive, was charming everyone who could afford it. Doubtless, part of that charm resided in its alleged aphrodisiac properties, and chocolate found its way into confections and was tinkered with as candy.

An international phase of chocolate history was launched in 1819, when the first eating chocolate was produced in Switzerland. In the following decade Cadbury ’s Chocolate Company opened in England, the Baker Chocolate Company in the United States, a Dutch chocolate maker produced the world’s first chocolate candy, and an instant cocoa powder was invented. The commercial chocolate industry was born.

If there is little passion in my nutshell early history of chocolate, the same is not true of the pages that follow. They reflect the energy and enthusiasm of the chocolate history research group established at the University of California at Davis a decade ago with the backing of Mars, Incorporated. Led by Professor Louis Grivetti, its members have investigated myriad aspects of chocolate history and have generated mountains of materials. Nonetheless, the editors explain that their intention has not been to produce a full history of chocolate, which would have taken many more years to complete. Instead, what they have done is to assemble a veritable archive of the subject in 56 chapters and 10 appendices for which food historians will be forever grateful.

The chapters are wide ranging and head in whatever directions their authors’expertise and curiosity dictate. Within this work they are organized roughly chronologically as well as geographically and topically, so that they begin with pre-Maya cacao use and contain in the penultimate chapter searches for chocolate references made during the American Civil War. Medicinal application is a recurring theme and one chapter examines twenty-first century attitudes about such uses. Chocolate pots for serving are given considerable space and five chapters are devoted to cacao and chocolate in the Caribbean with another to cacao production in Brazil and West Africa.

The final chapter scouts new terrain for future chocolate research with the appendices intended to help in this regard by disclosing archives, libraries, museums, other institutions, and digitized resources consulted in this effort. Some 99 chocolate-associated quotations are provided, as is a chocolate timeline and an important discussion of early written works on chocolate. Finally, there is a brief discussion of the nutritional properties of cocoa.

All of this may not constitute a full history of chocolate but it comes close. This work is both a major contribution to the field and to a growing body of food-history literature.

Kenneth F. Kiple

Preface

To study the history of chocolate is to embark upon an extraordinary journey through time and geographical space. The chocolate story spans a vast period from remote antiquity through the 21st century. Historical evidence for chocolate use appears on all continents and in all climes, from tropical rain forests to the icy reaches of the Arctic and Antarctic. The story of chocolate is associated with millions of persons, most unknown, but some notables including economists, explorers, kings, politicians, and scientists. Perhaps no other food, with the exception of wine, has evoked such curiosity regarding its beginnings, development, and global distribution. But there is a striking difference: wine is forbidden food to millions globally because of its alcohol content but chocolate can be enjoyed and savored by all.

The chocolate history group at the University of California, Davis, was formed in 1998 at the request of Mars, Incorporated. The purpose of this association was to identify chocolate-associated artifacts, documents, and manuscripts from pre-Columbian America and to trace the development and evolution of culinary and medical uses of chocolate into Europe and back to North America. Our initial activities (1998–2001) were characterized by archive/library research and on-site field work observations and interviews conducted in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, and the United States. The primary objectives during this research period were the following:

1. Identify early medical and culinary data associated with cacao and chocolate use in the Americas and Europe.

2. Interview traditional healers and chocolate vendors in the Americas to better understand contemporary, 20th and 21st century, cultural uses of chocolate.

3. Identify indigenous, historical, and early 20th century chocolate recipes.

In 2004, the chocolate history research group was expanded after a second generous gift from Mars, Incorporated. Our team of scholars during 2004-2007 included colleagues and independent scholars affiliated with the following institutions: Albany Institute of History and Art, Albany, New York; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of History, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts; California Parks System, Sacramento, California; Department of Ethnic Studies, California State University, San Luis Obispo, California; Colonial Deerfield, Deerfield, Massachusetts; Colonial Williamsburg, Williamsburg, Virginia; Center for Anthropology, University of Havana, Cuba; Department of Art History, East Los Angeles Community College, Los Angeles, California; Florida Institute for Hieroglyphic Research, Palmetto, Florida; Fort Ticonderoga, Ticonderoga, New York; Fortress Louisbourg, Nova Scotia, Canada; Harokopio University, Athens, Greece; Mars, Incorporated, Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania, Hackettstown, New Jersey, and McLean, Virginia; The McCord Museum, Montreal, Canada; Mills College, Oakland, California; Division of Social Sciences, New College of Florida, Sarasota, Florida; Oxford University, Oxford, England; Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, England; Parks Canada, Ottawa, Canada; Department of Community Development, Department of Engineering, Department of Food Science, Department of Native American Studies, Department of Nutrition, Graduate Group in Geography, and Peter J. Shields Library, University of California, Davis, California; and University of Massachusetts, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts.

Activities during the second research period (2004-2007) continued to identify chocolate-related documents available in archives, libraries, and museums located in Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean, and efforts were expanded into additional countries of South and North America, western and southeastern Europe, western Africa, and south Asia. Our primary objectives were the following:

1. Determine historical patterns of introduction and dispersal of chocolate products throughout North America.

2. Identify the development and evolution of chocolate-related technology in North America.

3. Identify and trace the culinary, cultural, economic, dietary/medical, military, political, and social uses of chocolate in North America from the Colonial Era through the early 20th century.

4. Develop a state-of-the-art database and web portal for the history of chocolate, to be used by students, scholars, and scientists.

5. Publish chocolate-related findings via the popular press and scholarly journals, and relate findings via local, national, and international symposia and professional meetings.

The present book contains 56 chapters written by members of our chocolate history team. The story of chocolate is traced from earliest pre-Columbian times, through uses by Central American societies prior to European arrival, through the global spread of cacao trees to Africa and Asia, through Caribbean and South American trade, and ultimately the culinary and medical uses of chocolate in Europe, North America, and globally.

While much of the chocolate story has been told elsewhere, it is characteristic of chocolate-associated research that new documents can be identified and brought to light daily. Historical research on chocolate-associated topics has been facilitated in recent years by important, easily available on-line services through university and governmental subscriptions, whether the Library of Congress, Paper of Record, NewsBank/Readex, or other services. These sites (and others) have made it relatively easy to search millions of newspaper and journal/magazine advertisements and articles and other documents that cover historical North America (United States and Canada) from the 16th through early 20th centuries. These on-line services provide users with topical, keyword search engines that permit easy identification, retrieval, and cataloging of tens of thousands of documents within a short period in sharp contrast to the more laborious and time-consuming use of microfilm and microfiche services of previous decades. Still, it has been the slow, detailed tasks associated with archive and library research that has characterized much of our current efforts, and that has revealed many of the most exciting findings chronicled within the present book.

Our vision was to recruit a team of scholars with diversified training and research methods who would apply their special talents and skills to investigate chocolate history. Our team consisted of 115 colleagues and represented a broad range of professional fields: agronomy, anthropology, archaeology, archive science, art history, biochemistry, business management and product development, computer science, culinary arts, curatorial arts, dietetics, economics, engineering, ethnic studies, food science, gender studies, genetics and plant breeding, geography, history, legal studies (both historical and contemporary), library science, linguistics, marketing, museum administration, nutrition, paleography, and statistics. Team members also were skilled in a variety of languages, an important consideration given that chocolate-related documents regularly have appeared in Dutch, French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish (Castiliano and contemporary national dialects), and Swedish, as well as ancient and contemporary Mesoamerican languages.

Topics investigated by members of our team also reflected diversified research interests: agriculture and agronomy (cacao cultivation and ecology), collectables (chocolate-associated posters, ephemera, toys, and trading cards), culinary arts (recipes and serving equipment), culture in its broadest sense (art, linguistics, literature, music, religion, and theater), diet and health (chocolate in preventive and curative medicine), economics (advertising, import/export, manufacturing, marketing, product design, and sales), education (18th century North American school and library books), ethics (issues associated with 17th to 19th century child labor and slavery), gender (division of labor and women ’ s roles in chocolate production), legal issues (chocolate-associated crime and trial accounts, copyright, and patent law), military (chocolate as rations and as hospital/medical supplies), and politics (chocolate-associated legislation at local, state, regional, national, and international levels).

Team members selected historical eras for their chocolate-related research that suited their interests, talents, and previous experience. These conceptual eras included: Pre-Columbian America; Colonial Era North, Central, South America, and the Caribbean; American Revolutionary War Era; America and Canada in the Post-Revolutionary War Era; Early American Federal Period; Continental Exploration and Westward Expansion (both Canadian and American); Spanish and Mexican Periods (American Southeast, Southwest borderlands, and West Coast regions of North America); California Gold Rush Era; American Civil War Era; Postwar Reconstruction; Early Industrial North America; and Early Modern Era.

The types of information available for inspection by team members included advertisements (magazines and newspapers, advertising posters, signs, and trade cards); archaeological materials (murals, paintings, pottery, statues, and actual chocolate residues from ancient containers); art (lithographs, paintings, prints, and sculpture); commonplace books, diaries, and handwritten travel accounts; expedition records; government documents; hospital records; personal correspondence; literature (diaries, novels, and poetry); magazine articles; menus; military documents; newspaper accounts; obituaries; probate records; religious documents; and shipping manifests.

During the early stages of our work, we elected not to produce an integrated global history of chocolate. In our view, such an effort would have exceeded several thousand pages in print and would have been out of date upon publication due to continued evidence uncovered almost daily during our archive, library, and museum research. Instead, the thematic chapters presented in the present book reflect in-depth snapshots that illustrate specific themes within the breadth and scope of chocolate history. As a collection, the chapters presented herein present a common thread that reveals the sustained importance of chocolate through the millennia. The chapters also reveal where additional scholarship and future activities might be productive. It is our hope that readers of our work, those interested in expanding and furthering archive, library, and museum research on chocolate, will themselves embark upon their own voyage of discovery and make additional contributions to chocolate research.

Louis Evan Grivetti
Howard-Yana Shapiro
Davis, California
January 2009

Acknowledgments

This book reflects the efforts of many persons and organizations. We wish to thank Deborah and Forrest Mars, Jr. for their deep interest in history and for their vision that led to the founding of the Chocolate History Group. We also extend our thanks to Dr. Harold Schmitz, Chief Scientist, Mars, Incorporated, for his valuable support throughout the years. To our editors at Wiley, Jonathan Rose and Lisa Van Horn, we thank you for your skills and dedication to produce a volume that is beautiful and content rich. We thank Lee Goldstein of Lee Goldstein Design for the design of the text and insert. We thank Dr. Teresa Dillinger for her support in the early days of our research and Dr. Deanna Pucciarelli who helped manage this enormous undertaking during the last three years. We thank Steven Oerding, Senior Artist/Supervisor, and Samuel Woo, Principal Photographer, both from IET-Academic Technology Services, Mediaworks, at the University of California, Davis, for photography and map production included within the present book. We also wish to thank the Administration and Librarians of the Peter J. Shields Library, University of California, Davis, especially Daryl Morrison and Axel Borg, for their assistance in locating key volumes and manuscripts during our research.

We sincerely extend our personal thanks to Mars, Incorporated for their generous support and their enduring respect and appreciation for all things chocolate, allowing us to document the enormous breadth of chocolate’s role throughout history.

Finally, we thank each of the chocolate history researchers who worked as part of our team throughout the last 10 years. Our lives have been enriched by each of them!

L. E. G.
H.-Y. S.

Chocolate Team (1998–2009)

Shelly Allen
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Brent Anderson
Process Development Engineer
Historic Division of Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Jennifer Anderson
Professor
Department of Anthropology
California State University
San Jose, California

Margaret Asselin
Marketing Director
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Richard Bailey
Captain
Ocean Classrooms Foundation
Watch Hill, Rhode Island

Diane Barker
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

James Barrett
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Patricia Barriga
Archivist and Paleographer
Mexico City, Mexico

Steve Beck
California State Parks Service
Sutter’s Fort
Sacramento, California

William Bellody
Research and Development Officer
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Carmen Bernett
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia

Anne Blaschke
Postgraduate Researcher
Boston University
Boston, Massachusetts

Axel Borg
Librarian
Biological and Agricultural Sciences Department
Shields Library
University of California
Davis, California

Fred Bowers
National Sales Director
Mars, Incorporated
Jasper, Georgia

Laura Pallas Brindle
Postgraduate Researcher
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia

Eileen Brown
Senior Franchise Manager
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia

Beatriz Cabezon
Paleographer and Independent Scholar
Davis, California

Halley Carlquist
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Kati Chevaux
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Frank Clark
Supervisor, Historic Foodways
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
Williamsburg, Virginia

Christopher Clayton
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Jean Colvin
Director
University of California Research Expeditions (UREP)
Davis, California

Karl Crannell
Public Programs Coordinator
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York

Brandon Davis
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Victoria Dickinson
Director
McCord Museum
Montreal, Canada

Teresa Dillinger
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Cleo Dimitriadou
Undergraduate Researcher
Harokopio University
Athens, Greece

Vassiliki Dragoumanioti
Undergraduate Researcher
Harokopio University
Athens, Greece

Phil Dunning
Material Culture Researcher
Parks Canada
Ottawa, Canada

Sylvia Escarcega
Assistant Professor
Department of Anthropology
DePaul University
Chicago, Illinois

Jennifer Follett
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Ruby Fougère
Curatorial Collections Specialist
Fortress of Louisbourg
National Historic Site of Canada
Nova Scotia, Canada

Christopher D. Fox
The Anthony D. Pell Curator of Collections
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York

M arjorie Freedman
Professor
Department of Nutrition
California State University
San Jose, California

E sther Friedman
Independent Researcher
Boston, Massachusetts

Enrique García-Galiano
Professor
Department of Food Science
National University of Mexico
Mexico City, Mexico

Vanessa Gardia-Brito
MPM/Counsel, Americas
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia

James F. Gay
Journeyman
Historic Foodways
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
Williamsburg, Virginia

Nicole Geurin
Undergraduate Researcher,
University of California
Davis, California

Rose Giordano
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Estrella González Noriega
Investigadora Auxiliar and
Adjunct Professor
Center for Anthropology
University of Havana
Havana, Cuba

Bertram M. Gordon
Professor
Department of History
Mills College
Oakland, California

Jim Grieship
Extension Specialist
Department of Community Development
University of California
Davis, California

Louis Evan Grivetti
Professor Emeritos
Department of Nutrition
University of California
Davis, California

Judy Hamway
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

E. Jeanne Harnois
Independent Researcher
Boston, Massachusetts

Lisa Hartman
Historic Division of Mars, Incorporated
Bel Air, Maryland

Katy Heckendorn
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Jeya Henry
Professor
Department of Nutrition and Molecular Biology
Oxford Brookes University
Oxford, England

Martha Jimenez
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Aliza Johnson
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Anne Marie Lane Jonah
Historian
Fortress of Louisbourg
National Historic Site of Canada
Nova Scotia, Canada

Lois Kampinski
Independent Scholar
Washington, DC

Alexandra Kazaks
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Christopher Kelly
Postgraduate Researcher
Department of History
University of Massachusetts
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts

Gale Keogh-Dwyer
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Amanda Lange
Curatorial Department
Chair and Curator of Historic Interiors
Historic Deerfield
Deerfield, Massachusetts

Matthew Lange
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Kristine Lee
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Julio Lopez
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Catherine Macpherson
Independent Researcher
McCord Museum
Montreal, Canada

Martha J. Macri
Professor
Department of Native American Studies
University of California
Davis, California

Silviu Magarit
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Deborah Mars
President, Advisory Board
Historic Division of Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia

Antonia-Leda Matala
Assistant Professor
Department of Nutrition
Harokopio University
Athens, Greece

Anne McCarty
Director of Membership and Special Initiatives
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York

W. Douglas McCombs
Curator of History
Albany Institute of History and Art
Albany, New York

Timoteo Mendoza
Advisor to the California Department of Education
Madera, California

Catlin Merlo
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Janet Henshall Momsen
Professor Emerita
Department of Community Development
University of California
Davis, California

Victor Montejo
Professor
Department of Native American Studies
University of California
Davis, California

Heidi Moses
Archaeology Collections Manager
Fortress of Louisbourg
National Historic Site of Canada
Nova Scotia, Canada

Juan Carlos Motamayor
Senior Scientist
Mars, Incorporated
Miami, Florida

Mary Myers
Group Research Manager of Chocolate, Cocoa, Dairy
Mars, Incorporated
Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania

Nataraj Naidu
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Ezra Neale
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Madeiline Nguyen
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Benjamin Nowicki
Postgraduate Researcher
DePaul University
Chicago, Illinois

Niurka Nuñez González
Investigadora Agregada
Center for Anthropology
University of Havana
Havana, Cuba

Bradley Foliart Olsen
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Christian Ostrosky
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Adriana Parra
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Suzanne Perkins
Art Historian and Independent Scholar
Berkeley, California

Sue Provenzale
American Heritage Chocolate
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Deanna Pucciarelli
Assistant Professor
Food and Consumer Sciences
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana

Sezin Rajandran
Archivist and Independent Scholar
Seville, Spain

Pamela Richardson
Postgraduate Researcher
Oxford University
Oxford, England

Kurt Richter
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Peter G. Rose
Independent Researcher
South Salem, New York

Robert Rucker
Biochemist and Nutritionist
Department of Nutrition
University of California
Davis, California

Diana Salazar
Independent Researcher and Translator
Davis, California

Brianna Schmid
Undergraduate Researcher and
University of California
Davis, California

Harold Schmitz
Mars, Incorporated
McLean, Virginia

Rebecca Shacker
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Celia D. Shapiro
Archivist and Independent Scholar
Washington, DC

Howard-Yana Shapiro
Director of Plant Science
Mars, Incorporated
Mclean, Virginia, and
University of California
Davis, California

Adam Siegal
Librarian
Humanities/Social Sciences Department
Shields Library
University of California
Davis, California

Rodney Snyder
Mars, Incorporated
Senior Research Engineer
Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania

Eduardo Somarriba
Professor, Tropical Agroforestry
Leader, Cocoa Thematic Group
CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza)
Turrialba, Costa Rica

Ward Speirs
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Margaret Swisher
Postgraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Nghiem Ta
Undergraduate Researcher
University of California
Davis, California

Josef Toledano
Agriculture and Agroforestry Consultant
Tel Aviv, Israel

Gabrielle Vail
Research Scholar and Director
Florida Institute for Hieroglyphic Research
Division of Social Sciences
New College of Florida
Sarasota, Florida

Lucinda Valle
Instructor
Department of Art History
East Los Angeles Community College
Los Angeles, California

Victor Valle
Professor
Chair, Department of Ethnic Studies
California State University
San Luis Obispo, California

Eric Van De Wal
Marketing Director
Mars, Incorporated
Hackettstown, New Jersey

Marilyn Villalobos
Regional Coordinator
Central America Cacao Project
CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza)
Turrialba, Costa Rica

Timothy Walker
Assistant Professor
Department of History
University of Massachusetts
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts

Gerald W. R. Ward
The Katharine Lane Weems Senior Curator of Decorative Arts and Sculpture
Art of the Americas
Museum of Fine Arts
Boston Massachusetts

Nicholas Westbrook
Director
Fort Ticonderoga
Ticonderoga, New York

Virginia Westbrook
Public Historian
Ticonderoga, New York

Eric Whitacre
Applied Food Science and Product Design
Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania

Amanda Zompetti
Undergraduate Researcher
University of Massachusetts
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts