BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD

This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approximately twenty-five to forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORY

Published

A Companion to the Roman Army
Edited by Paul Erdkamp

A Companion to the Roman Republic
Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx

A Companion to the Roman Empire
Edited by David S. Potter

A Companion to the Classical Greek World
Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl

A Companion to the Ancient Near East
Edited by Daniel C. Snell

A Companion to the Hellenistic World
Edited by Andrew Erskine

A Companion to Late Antiquity
Edited by Philip Rousseau

A Companion to Ancient History
Edited by Andrew Erskine

A Companion to Archaic Greece
Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees

A Companion to Julius Caesar
Edited by Miriam Griffin

A Companion to Byzantium
Edited by Liz James

A Companion to Ancient Egypt
Edited by Alan B. Lloyd

A Companion to Ancient Macedonia
Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington

A Companion to the Punic Wars
Edited by Dexter Hoyos

A Companion to Augustine
Edited by Mark Vessey

A Companion to Marcus Aurelius
Edited by Marcel van Ackeren

A Companion to Ancient Greek Government
Edited by Hans Beck

A Companion to the Neronian Age
Edited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. Dinter

A Companion to Greek Democracy and the Roman Republic
Edited by Dean Hammer

A Companion to Livy
Edited by Bernard Mineo

A Companion to Ancient Thrace
Edited by Julia Valeva, Emil Nankov, and
Denver Graninger

A Companion to Roman Italy
Edited by Alison E. Cooley

A Companion to the Etruscans
Edited by Sinclair Bell and Alexandra A. Carpino

A Companion to the Flavian Age of Imperial Rome
Edited by Andrew Zissos

A Companion to Science, Technology, and Medicine in Ancient Greece and Rome
Edited by Georgia L. Irby

LITERATURE AND CULTURE

Published

A Companion to Classical Receptions
Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray

A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography
Edited by John Marincola

A Companion to Catullus
Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner

A Companion to Roman Religion
Edited by Jörg Rüpke

A Companion to Greek Religion
Edited by Daniel Ogden

A Companion to the Classical Tradition
Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf

A Companion to Roman Rhetoric
Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall

A Companion to Greek Rhetoric
Edited by Ian Worthington

A Companion to Ancient Epic
Edited by John Miles Foley

A Companion to Greek Tragedy
Edited by Justina Gregory

A Companion to Latin Literature
Edited by Stephen Harrison

A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought
Edited by Ryan K. Balot

A Companion to Ovid
Edited by Peter E. Knox

A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language
Edited by Egbert Bakker

A Companion to Hellenistic Literature
Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss

A Companion to Vergil's Aeneid and its Tradition
Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam

A Companion to Horace
Edited by Gregson Davis

A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds
Edited by Beryl Rawson

A Companion to Greek Mythology
Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone

A Companion to the Latin Language
Edited by James Clackson

A Companion to Tacitus
Edited by Victoria Emma Pagán
A Companion to Women in the Ancient World
Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon

A Companion to Sophocles
Edited by Kirk Ormand

A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East
Edited by Daniel Potts

A Companion to Roman Love Elegy
Edited by Barbara K. Gold

A Companion to Greek Art
Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos

A Companion to Persius and Juvenal
Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood

A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic
Edited by Jane DeRose Evans

A Companion to Terence
Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill

A Companion to Roman Architecture
Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen

A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity
Edited by Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle

A Companion to Plutarch
Edited by Mark Beck

A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities
Edited by Thomas K. Hubbard

A Companion to the Ancient Novel
Edited by Edmund P. Cueva and Shannon N. Byrne

A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean
Edited by Jeremy McInerney

A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art
Edited by Melinda Hartwig

A Companion to the Archaeology of Religion in the Ancient World
Edited by Rubina Raja and Jörg Rüpke

A Companion to Food in the Ancient World
Edited by John Wilkins and Robin Nadeau

A Companion to Ancient Education
Edited by W. Martin Bloomer

A Companion to Ancient Aesthetics
Edited by Pierre Destrée & Penelope Murray

A Companion to Roman Art
Edited by Barbara Borg

A Companion to Greek Literature
Edited by Martin Hose and David Schenker

A Companion to Josephus in His World
Edited by Honora Howell Chapman and Zuleika Rodgers

This edition first published 2016
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Irby-Massie, Georgia L. (Georgia Lynette), 1965- editor.
Title: A companion to science, technology, and medicine in ancient Greece and
Rome/edited by Georgia L. Irby.
Description: Chichester, UK ; Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2016. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015031804 | ISBN 9781118372678 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Science, Ancient. | Science—Greece—History. |
Science—Rome—History. | Technology–Greece—History. |
Technology—Rome—History. | Medicine, Greek and Roman.
Classification: LCC Q124.95 .C66 2016 | DDC 509.38–dc23 LC record available
at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015031804

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Hercules Supporting the World Flanked by Euclid and Ptolemy, fresco by Annibale Carracci, 1596. Palazzo Farnese, Rome. © Bridgeman Images

CONTENTS

Contributor Biographies

Abbreviations

Introduction

1. “Science” in Antiquity
2. A Very Brief History of the “History of Greco-Roman Science”
3. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Greek and Roman Science, Medicine, and Technology
4. Transliterations and Translations
5. Acknowledgments
References

Part I: Physics and Cosmogony

Chapter 1: The Creation and Destruction of the World
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Myth and Hesiod
3. 3. The Milesians
4. 4. Heraclitus
5. 5. The Hippocratics
6. 6. Eleatics
7. 7. Empedocles
8. 8. Anaxagoras
9. 9. Leucippus and Democritus
10. 10. Plato
11. 11. Aristotle
12. 12. Epicurus and Lucretius
13. 13. Stoics
14. 14. Early Christians
15. 15. Conclusion
16. References
17. Further Reading
18. Notes
Chapter 2: Matter
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Matter in the Presocratics
3. 3. Socrates and Plato
4. 4. Aristotle
5. 5. Hellenistic Philosophy
6. 6. Neoplatonism
7. 7. Christian Thought
8. 8. Summary
9. References
10. Further Reading
11. Notes
Chapter 3: Motion and Energy
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Mathematical Mechanics up to Archimedes
3. 3. Philosophical Ideas about Motion
4. 4. Archimedes on Motion
5. 5. Mechanics in the Hellenistic Period
6. 6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Further Reading
9. Notes
Chapter 4: Nature and the Divine
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Myth and the Birth of “Gods and Earth”
3. 3. Presocratics
4. 4. Plato
5. 5. Stoics
6. 6. Aristotle
7. 7. Neoplatonists
8. 8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Further Reading
11. Notes

Part II: The Mathematical Sciences

Chapter 5: Mathematics
1. 1. Defining Ancient Greek Mathematics
2. 2. In Lieu of Historical Narrative: Questions of Chronology, Geography, Demography
3. 3. Themes of Greek Mathematics
4. References
5. Further Reading
6. Notes
Chapter 6: Astronomy
1. 1. Some Historiographical Issues
2. 2. Pre-Greek Astronomy
3. 3. Euctemon and Meton
4. 4. Plato
5. 5. Eudoxus
6. 6. Callippus
7. 7. Aristotle
8. 8. Aristarchus
9. 9. Hipparchus
10. 10. Ptolemy
11. 11. Conclusion
12. References
13. Further Reading
Chapter 7: Astrology
1. 1. Astrology as the “Science of the Stars”
2. 2. Formation of Tradition: Mesopotamian Astrology
3. 3. Classical Astrology
4. 4. Astrology in the Roman Empire
5. References
6. Further Reading
Chapter 8: Ancient Optics: Theories and Problems of Vision
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Four Kinds of Visual Theory
3. 3. Theories of Color
4. 4. Perception of Size, Shape, Contour, and Distance
5. 5. The Science of Mirrors
6. 6. A Grand Synthesis: Ptolemy’s Optics
7. 7. Postscript
8. References
9. Further Reading
Chapter 9: Hydrostatics and Pneumatics in Antiquity
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Technology
3. Practical Knowledge in the Frame of Pneumatics
4. 3. Science
5. 4. Accumulation and Network
6. References
7. Further Reading
8. Notes
Chapter 10: The Science of Harmonics and Music Theory in Ancient Greece
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Organization of Musical Space
3. 3. Pythagoreans and Harmonikoi
4. 4. Aristoxenus
5. 5. The Euclidean Sectio Canonis
6. 6. Later Developments
7. References
8. Further Reading

Part III: Earth Sciences

Chapter 11: Hydrology: Ocean, Rivers, and Other Waterways
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The Circumambient Ocean
3. 3. The Nature of the Oceans and Seas
4. 4. Rivers
5. 5. Springs and Fountains
6. 6. Floating Islands
7. 7. Conclusion
8. References
9. Further Reading
10. Note
Chapter 12: Classical Geology and the Mines of the Greeks and Romans
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Concepts of the Material World
3. 3. Mining
4. 4. Conclusion
5. References
6. Further Reading
Chapter 13: Greco-Egyptian and Byzantine Alchemy
1. 1. Collecting Alchemical Writings in Byzantium: The Art Called Chēmeia
2. 2. The Earliest “Alchemists” (First to Third Centuries CE)
3. 3. Zosimus of Panopolis (fl. circa 250–300 CE)
4. 4. Alchemy after Zosimus (Fourth to Seventh Centuries CE)
5. References
6. Further Reading
7. Notes
Chapter 14: Meteorology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Coping with the Weather
3. 3. Meteōrologia: Explaining Meteorological Phenomena
4. 4. Predicting Weather
5. References
6. Further Reading
Chapter 15: Geography
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Early Greek Geography
3. 3. Pytheas, Alexander the Great, and Dicaearchus
4. 4. Eratosthenes
5. 5. Hipparchus
6. 6. The Rise of Rome
7. 8. Strabo
8. 9. After Strabo
9. References
10. Further Reading

Part IV: Life Sciences

Chapter 16: Greek and Roman Botany
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Naming Plants in Greece
3. 3. Theophrastus and the Beginning of Scientific Botany
4. 4. After Theophrastus
5. 5. Dioscorides
6. 6. Transition to the Roman World
7. 7. Pliny the Elder
8. 8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Further Reading
Chapter 17: Zoology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. A Science Is Born
3. 3. After Aristotle
4. 4. Conclusion
5. References
6. Further Reading
Chapter 18: “Ecology” in the ancient Mediterranean
1. 1. Ancient Near Eastern Approaches
2. 2. Greek and Roman Theories of “Ecology”
3. 3. Human Impact on Ancient Mediterranean Environments
4. 4. Conclusion
5. References
6. Further Reading
7. Notes
Chapter 19: The Failure of Evolutionary Thinking in Antiquity
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Empedocles of Acragas
3. 3. Plato
4. 4. Aristotle
5. 5. Galen
6. 6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Further Reading
9. Notes
Chapter 20: Embryology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Approaches to Empirical Research
3. 3. Male and Female Seeds
4. 4. The Origin of the Seed
5. 5. Conception and Embryological Etiology
6. 6. “Preformation” and “Epigenesis”
7. 7. Animation
8. References
9. Further Reading

Part V: Healing and the Human Body

Chapter 21: Anatomy and Physiology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Babylonian and Egyptian Initiatives
3. 3. The Presocratics and Plato
4. 4. The Hippocratics and Aristotle
5. 5. Hellenistic Initiatives: Human Dissection and Vivisection
6. 6. Codification of Anatomical Knowledge
7. 7. Galen
8. 8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Further Reading
Chapter 22: Gynecology
1. 1. Greek and Roman Gynecological Theory
2. 2. Greek and Roman Gynecological Prescriptions
3. 3. Greek and Roman Practitioners of Gynecology and Obstetrics
4. 4. Religious and Magical Approaches to Women’s Medicine
5. 5. Conclusion
6. References
7. Further Reading
Chapter 23: Surgery
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The First Literary Sources
3. 3. The Alexandrian Revolution and Egyptian Myth
4. 4. Surgery in Roman Times: Celsus’ Latin Encyclopedia
5. 5. The Galenic Corpus
6. 6. Later Compilations
7. 7. Surgery as Craft
8. 8. Ethical Questions
9. 9. Tools and Techniques
10. 10. Conclusion
11. References
12. Further Reading
13. Notes
Chapter 24: Physicians and “Schools”
1. 1. The Ancient Physician
2. 2. “Schools” of Medicine
3. References
4. Further Reading
Chapter 25: Pharmacy
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Pharmaceutical Writings
3. 3. Drug Trade
4. 4. Folklore
5. 5. Practitioners
6. 6. Compounding Pharmaceuticals
7. 7. Administration
8. 8. Alexipharmaka (Antidotes) and Anesthesia
9. 9. Conclusions
10. References
11. Further Reading
Chapter 26: Magic, Curses, and Healing
1. 1. Polytheistic Context
2. 2. Natural Magic
3. 3. Extended World
4. 4. The Historiography of Magic
5. 5. What Is Magic?
6. 6. Greek and Roman Words
7. 7. Homer and Hesiod
8. 8. Binding Magic and Curses
9. 9. Disease
10. 10. General Attack?
11. 11. Macrocosm and Microcosm
12. 12. Prognosis and Prophesy
13. 13. Shamanism in Classical Antiquity?
14. 14. Conclusion
15. References
16. Further Reading
17. Notes
Chapter 27: Healing Shrines
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Healing Deities and Their Shrines
3. 3. Incubation: “The Medical Art Consists of Sacred Dream-Visions”
4. 4. Isis, Sarapis, and Hemithea
5. 5. Apollo Epikourios
6. 6. Heros Iatros and Amphiaraos
7. 7. Anatomical Votives and Specialist Healing Temples
8. References
9. Further Reading
10. Notes
Chapter 28: Regimen and Athletic Training
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Paidotribēs
3. 3. Gymnastēs
4. 4. The Hippocratic Corpus
5. 5. Gymnastic Writing in the Hellenistic and Early Imperial Periods
6. 6. Galen
7. 7. Philostratus
8. References
9. Further Reading
Chapter 29: Epidemiology and Pathology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Written Sources
3. 3. Artistic Representations
4. 4. Osteoarchaeological Evidence
5. 5. Conclusion
6. References
7. Further Reading
Chapter 30: Psychology and Physiognomics
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Ontology and Physics
3. 3. Psychology in the “Modern Sense”
4. 4. Physiognomics
5. References
6. Further Reading
7. Notes
Chapter 31: Anthropology: Knowledge of Man
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Origins
3. 3. Prehistory and the Development of Society
4. 4. Lucretius
5. 5. Ethnography
6. 6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Further Reading

Part VI: Food Sciences

Chapter 32: Greek and Roman Agriculture
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Earth, Water, and Time
3. 3. Cereals and Legumes
4. 4. Vines and Tree Crops
5. 5. Vegetables, Herbs, and Other Plants
6. 6. Animals
7. 7. Conclusion
8. References
9. Further Reading
Chapter 33: Animal Husbandry
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Ovicaprids: Sheep and Goats
3. 3. Cattle
4. 4. Pigs
5. 5. Horses
6. 6. Mules
7. 7. Donkeys
8. 8. Dogs
9. 9. Small Animal Husbandry
10. 10. Aquatic Husbandry
11. 11. Exotics
12. References
13. Further Reading
Chapter 34: Oil and Wine Production
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Origin and Domestication of the Vine (Vitis vinefera L)
3. 3. The Origin of the Olive (Olea europaea L.)
4. 4. Olive and Vine Cultivation
5. 5. Pickled Olives and Raisins
6. 6. The Production of Wine and Oil
7. 7. Oil Presses and True Wine Presses
8. 8. Written Sources
9. 9. Oil Separation
10. 10. Conclusion
11. References
12. Further Reading
Chapter 35: Cooking and Baking Technology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Paleolithic
3. 3. Neolithic
4. 4. Bronze Age (circa 3000–1100 BCE)
5. 5. Bronze Age Bread Baking
6. 6. Iron Age (circa 1100–700 BCE)
7. 7. Archaic and Classical Periods (circa 700–323 BCE)
8. 8. The Archaic and Classical “Kitchen”
9. 9. Archaic and Classical Baking
10. 10. Hellenistic Period (323–31 BCE)
11. 11. Republican and Imperial Rome (circa 200 BCE to 480 CE)
12. 12. Roman Baking
13. 13. Late Antiquity
14. References
15. Further Reading
Chapter 36: Food Storage Technology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Storage Containers
3. 3. Built Structures
4. 4. Storing Wine and Oil
5. 5. Conclusion
6. References
7. Further Reading
8. Notes
Chapter 37: Culinary and Medicinal Uses of Wine and Olive Oil
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Processing and Production of Wine and Olive Oil
3. 3. Culinary Uses of Wine
4. 4. Culinary Uses of Olive Oil
5. 5. Greco-Roman Medicine and Health
6. 6. Medicinal Uses of Wine
7. 7. Medicinal Uses of Oil
8. 8. The Question of Efficacy
9. References
10. Further Reading
Chapter 38: Nutrition
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Hippocrates, Galen, and the “Powers” of Foods
3. 3. The Hippocratic Corpus
4. 4. Galen
5. 5. Bioarchaeology and Nutrition
6. 6. Advances through Technology
7. 7. Bioarchaeology and Nutritional Deficiencies
8. References
9. Further Reading

Part VII: Technology of Human Life

Chapter 39: Greek Public and Religious Architecture
1. 1. Materials and Forms
2. 2. Patrons and Architects
3. 3. Construction
4. 4. Building and Knowledge
5. References
6. Further Reading
Chapter 40: Greek Domestic Architecture
1. Building Technology: Domesticating Raw Materials
2. Architectural Syntax: Domesticating Space
3. Conclusion
4. References
5. Further Reading
Chapter 41: Greek Interior Decoration: Materials and Technology in the Art of Cosmesis and Display
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The Private Interior Space: Function and Decoration
3. 3. Elements of Fixed Interior Decoration
4. 4. Movable Artworks and Artifacts
5. 5. Conclusion
6. References
7. Further Reading
Chapter 42: Roman Monumental and Public Architecture
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The Beginnings
3. 3. Building Materials
4. 4. Innovative Building Types
5. 5. The Arch, Vault, and Dome
6. 6. Architecture as Power: Rome in the Last Years of the Republic
7. 7. Early Roman Building outside Rome
8. 8. Augustan and Julio-Claudian Rome
9. 9. The Role of the Allied Kings
10. 10. Roman Architecture in the Provinces
11. 11. Later Roman Architecture
12. References
13. Further Reading
Chapter 43: Roman Domestic Architecture
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Treatises on Architecture and Building Manuals
3. 3. Design
4. 4. Construction Techniques and Building Materials
5. 5. The Roman Domus: Between Theory and Practice
6. 6. Beyond the Atrium House
7. Acknowledgments
8. References
9. Further Reading
Chapter 44: Roman Interior Design
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Roman Rooms
3. 3. Painting
4. 4. Stucco
5. 5. Color (Pigments and Dyes)
6. 6. Mosaics
7. 7. Glass
8. 8. Windows
9. 9. Stone
10. 10. Metals
11. 11. Wood
12. 12. Summary
13. References
14. Further Reading
15. Notes
Chapter 45: Textile Technology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Historiographical Note
3. 2. Sources, Methods, and Advances
4. 3. State of the Art of Knowledge on Textile and Clothing Technologies
5. References
6. Further Reading
Chapter 46: Urban Infrastructure in the Roman World
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Water Supply
3. 3. Road Construction
4. 4. Bridge Construction
5. 5. Tunnel Construction
6. 6. Shipping Canals
7. 7. Summary
8. References
9. Further Reading
Chapter 47: Siegeworks and Fortifications
1. 1. Fortifications
2. 2. Siegeworks
3. References
4. Further Reading
Chapter 48: Arms and Weapons
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The Bronze Age
3. 3. The Dark Ages, Geometric, and Archaic Periods
4. 4. The Classical and Hellenistic Age
5. 5. The Roman Empire
6. References
7. Further Reading

Part VIII: Travel

Chapter 49: Greek and Roman Cartography
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Challenges
3. 3. Utility
4. 4. Homer
5. 5. Milesian Maps
6. 6. Herodotus
7. 7. Eratosthenes and Hipparchus
8. 8. Ptolemy
9. 9. Periploi, Itineraries, and Chorographies
10. 10. Celestial and Terrestrial Globes
11. 11. Physical Maps
12. 12. “Maps” in Greek and Roman Culture
13. 13. Conclusion
14. References
15. Further Reading
16. Notes
Chapter 50: Land Transport and Vehicles
1. 1. Historiography and Epistemological Problems
2. 2. Putting Methods and Sources into Perspective
3. 3. Comparative Ethnology and Ethno-History
4. 4. Mechanics of Forces
5. 5. The Energy Potential of Portage and Traction
6. 6. Functional Typology of Harnessed Transport
7. 7. The Diversity of Vehicles
8. 8. Customs, Contexts and Costs: Reality and Practical Applications in the Transportation of People and Merchandise (Raepsaet 2002)
9. 9. Roads
10. 10. Conclusion
11. References
12. Further Reading
Chapter 51: Navigation and the Art of Sailing
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Officers of the Deck: Kybernētēs, Keleustēs, and Prōratēs
3. 3. Moving the Vessel
4. 4. Anchorages and Harbors
5. 5. Sea Conditions: The Sailing Season, Winds, and Storms
6. 6. Navigation
7. 7. Maritime Highways and “Charts”
8. 8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Further Reading
11. Notes
Chapter 52: Ships and Boats
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Sources
3. 3. Shipbuilding
4. Summary
5. 4. Mediterranean Sailing Rigs
6. Oared Propulsion
7. Square Sails
8. 5. Patterns of Technological Change
9. 6. Conclusion
10. References
11. Further Reading

Part IX: Telling Time

Chapter 53: Greek Calendars
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Sources for the Study of the Greek Calendar
3. 3. The Calendar and the Sky
4. 4. Months and Years across Greece
5. 5. The Athenian Prytany Calendar
6. 6. Meton, Cycles, and the Influence of Astronomical Calendars
7. 7. The Greek Calendar in Flux
8. 8. Conclusion
9. References
10. Further Reading
Chapter 54: Roman Calendars
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The Pre-Julian Calendar
3. 3. The Julian Calendar
4. 4. Intercalation in the Julian Calendar
5. 5. Festivals in the New Calendar
6. References
7. Further Reading
Chapter 55: Time-Telling Devices
1. 1. Sundials
2. 2. Timers
3. 3. Water Clocks
4. References
5. Further Reading

Part X: Synthesis and Response

Chapter 56: The Crossroads of Hellenistic and Sanskrit Science
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Pre-Hellenistic Scientific Developments
3. 3. Mathematics
4. 4. Alexander in India
5. 5. Yavana Jātaka
6. Acknowledgments
7. References
8. Further Reading
Chapter 57: Roman Responses to Greek Science and Scholarship as a Cultural and Political Phenomenon
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Cicero
3. 3. Vitruvius
4. 4. Columella
5. 5. Pliny the Elder
6. 6. Responses to Non-Greek Science
7. 7. Conclusion
8. References
9. Further Reading
Chapter 58: Scientific Encyclopedias
1. 1. Introduction: Defining the Term “Scientific Encyclopedia”
2. 2. Encyclopedism and Science under the Peripatetic School
3. 3. The Tradition of Latin Encyclopedism
4. 4. Greco-Roman Imperial Culture
5. 5. Conclusion: The Role of Scientific Encyclopedias in the Transmission of Greco-Roman Science
6. References
7. Further Reading
8. Notes
Chapter 59: Translation and Transmission of Ancient Scientific Texts
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Translators and Modes of Translating
3. 3. Multivalent Texts
4. 4. Institutions
5. 5. Narrating the Translation and Transformation of the Ancient Sciences
6. References
7. Further Reading
Chapter 60: The Reception of Greco-Roman Science in the Renaissance: Assimilation(s), Transformation(s), Rejection, Hybridization
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The Reception of Greek Logic and Epistemology in Early Modern Debates on Method
3. 3. Physics
4. 4. Mechanics
5. 5. Medicine
6. 6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Further Reading
9. Note

Appendix: Major Scientific, Technical, and Medical Writers and Thinkers of Ancient Greece and Rome

General Index

Index of Authors, Thinkers, and Primary Sources

Index of Toponyms

EULA

List of Illustrations

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Action of leverage on a balance of unequal beams.
Figure 3.2 Tetragon of movements.
Figure 3.3 Proportion of straight-line movements contributing to circular motion in Mechanics 1.
Figure 3.4 Arcs covered in the same time share radii. (Aristotle, On the Heavens 2).
Figure 3.5 Archimedes’ law of the lever.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Euclid, Elements 1.20. (Florence, The Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Ms. Laurenziana 28.3, f. 89 r. Reproduced with permission of MiBACT.)
Figure 5.2 Odd and even numbers represented by line segments. (Florence, The Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Ms. Laurenziana 28.3, f. 98 r. Reproduced with permission of MiBACT.)
Figure 5.3 Two rational straight lines, commensurable in square only.
Figure 5.4 Two chords in a circle cutting each other.
Figure 5.5 Circle tilted within a cone. (Bioblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Ms. Laurenziana 28.4, f. 85 r. Reproduced with permission of MiBACT.)

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Anaximander’s solar system.
Figure 6.2 Stars viewed from the horizon.
Figure 6.3 Philolaus’ system.
Figure 6.4 Inequality of equinoxes and solstices.
Figure 6.5 Plato's two-sphere model.
Figure 6.6 Venus, Mercury, and the Sun.
Figure 6.7 Third sphere for the sun and the moon.
Figure 6.8 Eudoxus’ four spheres.
Figure 6.9 A hippopede.
Figure 6.10 Motion resulting from daily motion and motion along the ecliptic.
Figure 6.11 The celestial and terrestrial realms.
Figure 6.12 The basic epicycle.
Figure 6.13 Eccentric circle.
Figure 6.14 The equant.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 The force pump whose design was attributed to Ctesibius, in an early modern representation from a 16th century edition of the pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria (Giorgi 1592, 35v). (Source: Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Library.)
Figure 9.2 A hydrostatic balance corresponding to Remmius’ description in his Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris and transferred into Arabic culture as a hydrostatic balance of Archimedes. (From ‘Abd al-Rahmān al-Khāzinī, Kitāb mīzān al-h. ikma, Marv; MS Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Lawrence J. Schieneberg Collection, 386, p. 146, circa 1270. Source: Lawrence J. Schoenberg Collection, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.)
Figure 9.3 Great cistern built at the turn of the first century bce at Misenum, near Naples, to supply the city with fresh water from the aqueduct Aqua Augusta. Its capacity was 12,600 cubic meters (147,275 cubic yards). Engraving of Giovanni Volpato, circa 1750. (Source: Private Collection /The Stapleton Collection /Bridgeman Images.)

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 The effect of lunar phases on tidal amplitude. Kidd 1972, 284, Figure 14. (Courtesy of Cambridge University Press.)
Figure 11.2 The tidal diurnal cycle. Kidd 1972, 283, Figure 13. (Courtesy of Cambridge University Press.)

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Quartz dyke near Bronze Age mines in southern Spain. The intrusive white quartz in the grey sedimentary rocks could contain metal ores. Photo by author.
Figure 12.2 Modern opencast at Corto Lago, Rio Tinto showing the weathered gossan deposits (red) above the unchanged pyrite deposits (gray). The argentiferous jarosite ore, mined by the ancients, formed at the junction and is full of ancient workings (one is circled). Photo by author.
Figure 12.3 The opencast at Rudna Glava. The deposit mined in the Chalcolithic period for copper in the white rocks on the right were reworked by the Romans as an open cast mine for iron. Photo by author.
Figure 12.4 Hushing channels running diagonally across the hillside from the hushing reservoir (arrowed, see Fig. 12.5). When released, the waters would sweep away the waste from the Bronze Age copper mines (on the right-hand side), exposing the lead ore that the Romans wished to recover. Even though water was used extensively by the miners to move large quantities of material, the potential of water erosion in shaping the landscape was rarely appreciated. Note too that, as at Rudna Glava (Figure 12.3), Cwmystwyth provides another example of a mineral deposit being worked for different metals at different periods. Photo by author.
Figure 12.5 Small Roman hushing reservoir at Cwmystwyth, central Wales (arrowed on Fig. 12.4). Photo by author.
Figure 12.6 Roman installation at Corta Lago, Rio Tinto, to wash and concentrate the jarosite ores. Photo by author.
Figure 12.7 Incline linking two galleries in the Roman workings at Rio Tinto; clearly many workings, especially in the larger mines, were quite sophisticated. Photo by author.
Figure 12.8 Small working at Umm el Amad, trying to locate the vein displaced by faulting by digging into the fault. Photo by the author.
Figure 12.9 Roman gallery system at the copper mines of Umm el Amad, Wadi Feinnan, Jordan. Note the arches left to support the roof. Photo by author.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 The World according to Eratosthenes. [Source: Ancient World Mapping Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, based on Grosser Historischer Weltatlas (fifth edition, Munich 1972), p. 12.]

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Aeneas is healed by the surgeon Iapyx (Pompeii, House of Siricus, National Archeological Museum of Naples, inv. 9009). (Source: akg-images/Erich Lessing.)
Figure 23.2 Surgical tools found in Pompeii (National Archeological Museum of Naples, inv. 11141). (Source: Hulton Archive/Stringer/Getty Images.)

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1 Tin pyxis (A) and its contents (B) from the Relitto del Pozzino shipwreck (140–120 bce). [Source: © PNAS. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1216776110 (Medical Xpress).]
Figure 25.2 A folio from the Anicia Dioscorides showing an illustration of asphodel (Asphodelus ramosus). The red label near the root is the original, and subsequent owners have written in alternate names in various languages. The roots, leaves, stems, buds, and blossoms in various stages of bloom are all included in the picture, and the explanatory text is fitted around the large color illustration. Collins, M., Medieval Herbals: The Illustrative Traditions (2000), pp. 39–50; figures 2–10; color plates I–II. Brubaker, L., “Vienna Dioskorides and Anicia Juliana,” Byzantine Garden Culture (2002), 189–214; figures 1–24. (Source: Science & Society Picture Library/Getty Images.)

Chapter 27

Figure 27.1 Marble votive relief in the shape of a naiskos (small temple), found in the sanctuary of Amphiaraos at Oropos dated to circa 400–350 bce, now in the National Museum of Athens (NM 3369). Dimensions: height 0.49 m., width 0.54 m (19.3˝ × 21.25˝). (Source: akg-images/Erich Lessing.)
Figure 27.2 Anatomical votives from the Athenian Asklepieion in the Archaeological Museum in Athens. (Source: © VPC Photo / Alamy.)

Chapter 28

Figure 28.1 A trainer supervises boxers (red-figure kylix by the Foundry Painter, circa 490–480 bce; British Museum E78). (Source: © The Trustees of the British Museum.)

Chapter 29

Figure 29.1 Cribra orbitalia, 3–5-year-old child from the Classical cemetery of Laurion. Photo by author.
Figure 29.2 Severe degenerative changes in the distal epiphysis of the left humerus of an adult from the fourth century bce Athens (Plateia Kotzia). Photo by author.

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1 Psychic faculties according to Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics.
Figure 30.2 Diagram on the genres of faculties of psychē according to Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics.

Chapter 33

Figure 33.1 Oxen pulling a cart. Mosaic. Villa Romana Casale from Piazza Amerina, Sicily.
Figure 33.2 Pigs attended perhaps by Odysseus and his faithful swineherd Eumaeus. Red figure pelike by the “Pig Painter,” Athens, 470–460 bce. Cambridge, Fitwilliam Museum GR.9.1917. (Source: Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, UK/Bridgeman Images.)

Chapter 34

Figure 34.1 Wine presses (a) Simple wine press (Ayalon et al. 2009: 22, figure 1.3). (b) Complex wine press (Ayalon et al. 2009: 408, figure 70.7).
Figure 34.2 Olive crushing installations (a) Rotary olive crusher with concave crushing surface (Frankel et al. 1994: 33, figure 24b). (b) Rotary olive crusher with flat crushing surface (Frankel et al. 1994: 31, figure 21). (c) Horizontal oil mill (Frankel 1999: 72, figure 4).
Figure 34.3 Lever and weights and lever and drum presses (a) Phoenician Zabadi press. Note the slotted piers, lateral oil collection, and weights with metal hooks (Frankel et al. 1994: 44, figure 38). (b) Judean Maresha press. Note the niche in the wall and central oil collection weights with reversed T bores (Frankel et al. 1994: 41, figure 35). (c) North African press. Note the perforated piers and Semana weight (Frankel et al. 1994: 47 figure 42). (d) Cato’s lever and drum press (Frankel 1999: 86, figure 8).
Figure 34.4 Screw weights (Frankel 1999, CD). First column: WEIGHTS WITHOUT SOCKETS (a) Mi’ilya weight (b) Luvim weight (c) Bet-Ha-’Emeq weight (d) Midrasa weight. Second Column: WEIGHTS WITH SOCKETS FOUND IN THE LEVANT (a) Din’ila weight (b) Kasfa weight (c) Sarepta weight (d) Samaria weight. Third Column: OTHER WEIGHTS (a) Perforated screw weight (b) With socket and four holes (c) Rectangular internal dovetail mortises depression and four holes (d) Arginunta weight
Figure 34.5 Direct pressure screw presses (a) Screw press bases (Frankel 1999; CD). (b) Possible reconstructions of screw press bases including wedge press (Frankel et al. 1994: 64, figure 63). (c) Grooved pier presses (“Judaean Piers”) piers above; reconstruction below (Ayalon et al. 2009: 384, figures 66.1–2). (d) Cross press (Ayalon et al. 2009: 18, figure 4). (e) Single fixed screw wine press (Ayalon et al. 2009: 18, figure 5).

Chapter 35

Figure 35.1 Tzedakis and Martlew 1999, 108, figure 77. Chania Museum 6975. A reconstructed Late Minoan tripod cooking pot (circa 1480–1425 bce). The fragments of the original pot comprising the right-hand side of the body and rim were found to contain various organic residues. (Source: Instap Study Center of East Crete.)
Figure 35.2 Remains of a mill-bakery at Pompeii with its oven (rear) and mills (center). Photo by Vanessa Davies.

Chapter 36

Figure 36.1 Dolia. Pompeii, Reg. I.22, first century ce. Note lead mend on third dolium from left. Photo by author.
Figure 36.2 Tarring the Casks (first half of third century ce) from a series showing agricultural work throughout the year. Saint Romain-en-Gal, France. Musee d’Archeologie Nationale, Saint-Germain-Laye, France. (Source: akg-images/Erich Lessing.)
Figure 36.3 Cella Vinaria. Villa Regina. Boscoreale, first century ce. Dolia defossa with lids (opercula). Tops (tectaria priva) shown leaning against wall. Photo by author.
Figure 36.4 Military stone-built granary. Corbridge, Britain, third century ce. Note exterior buttresses and wall vents and interior flagstone floor supported on longitudinal sleeper walls. (Source: DeAgostini Picture Library/S. Vannini/Getty Images.)
Figure 36.5 Plan of Villa della Pisanella, Boscoreale, first century ce. (Adapted from Mau, A. 1907. Pompeii. Its Life and Art. New York: The Macmillan Company. Plan IV, 361.)

Chapter 39

Figure 39.1 Hermogenes, Temple of Artemis Leukophryne at Magnesia-on-the-Maeander, begun circa 220 bce. Restored ground plan showing modular, gridded underpinning. Adapted from Coulton 1977, figure 23.
Figure 39.2 Chersiphron and Metagenes, Archaic Temple of Artemis (“Croesus Temple”), Sardis, restored ground plan showing alternative reconstructions of adyton and opisthodomos in the east, begun circa 560 bce. Adapted from Ohnesorg 2007, plate 36.
Figure 39.3 Ictinus and Kallikrates, Classical Parthenon, Athens, 447/6 – 438/7 bce. Top: ground plan. Author’s drawing, modified from Korres 1994: Figure 2. Bottom: Exaggerated refinements, showing curvature and columnar inclination. Adapted from Korres 1999, figure 3.29.
Figure 39.4 Hephaesteum, Athens, circa 450 – 445 bce. Elevation showing integral proportions.
Figure 39.5 Eupalinus, Tunnel through Mount Kastro, Samos, circa mid-sixth century bce. Tunnel in section, plan, and theoretical ideal plan with a detail of this ideal plan’s convergence, according to Hermann Kienast. Adapted from Kienast 1995, figure 46a (section), foldout plans 3a and 3b, and figure 46a.
Figure 39.6 Geometric and modular underpinnings of temples. Top: Temple A at the Asklepieion at Cos, circa 170 bce. Restored ground plan showing geometric underpinning of circumscribed Pythagorean triangle ABC determining the placements of features, with module established by column-supporting paving slabs. Bottom: “Vitruvian Man” as described by Vitruvius (3.2.1-4), in which the human body provides the model for temple buildings.
Figure 39.7 Sanctuary of Apollo, Didyma, begun circa 300 BCE. Restored working drawings for generating column fluting (left) and entasis (right), dating to mid-third century BCE. Drawn through both of these, q, o, and p are from a third drawing based on the working drawing for entasis, in which a full-length recumbent column shaft includes q as the central axis, p as the line of diminution connecting the lower and upper column diameters, and o as the curved outer profile. Adapted from Haselberger 1980, figure 1.
Figure 39.8 Sanctuary of Apollo, Didyma, begun circa 300 BCE. Restored working drawing for generating entasis, dating to mid-third century BCE. A: Restored according to Lothar Haselberger. B: Shown with underpinning of 3:4:5 Pythagorean triangle ABC. C: Shown with modular underpinning, wherein the maximum height of the curve (g) above the line of diminution (h) expresses the module by which the upper column radius and height of the column are measurements of 18 and 24 modules. D: Shown with modular underpinning established by d65-d62a as the dimension of the maximum curvature of entasis, and d65-d61a as 4/3 of that measurement, establishing the unit by which the divisions of the elevation are established: base = 5, shaft = 18, d61a-d65 = 1. Adapted from Haselberger 1980, figure 1.

Chapter 40

Figure 40.1 Early Iron Age house plans.
Figure 40.2 Classical and Hellenistic house plans. Key: A = andron, CT = court, HR = hearth-room, L = latrine, O = oecus, P = porch.

Chapter 41

Figure 41.1 Pella, aerial photograph of the House of Dionysus with the restored peristyle in the north courtyard. Source: Universal Images Group/Universal History Archive/Getty Images.
Figure 41.2 Pella, detail of the mosaic decoration on the floor of the symposium hall in the House of Dionysus depicting a lion hunt, 325–300 BCE. Source: De Agostini Picture Library/A. Dagli Orti / Bridgeman Images.
Figure 41.3 Delos, mosaic emblem from the House of Dionysus. Detail of the head of the winged god, second century BCE. Source: Hervé Champollion/akg-images.
Figure 41.4 Pella, two-story façade in stucco and painting decoration of an interior wall from the so-called House of the Plaster, late fourth/third century BCE. Source: Carole Raddato.
Figure 41.5 Delos, the House of the Herms laid out in four different levels, second century BCE. Source: John Hios/akg-images.
Figure 41.6 Delos, statues of Cleopatra and Dioscorides with dedicatory inscription on the statue base, House III.I, second century BCE. Source: Shutterstock/Evgeny Shaparin.

Chapter 42

Figure 42.1 Opus Caementicium from a tomb along the Via Appia.
Figure 42.2 Opus reticulatum from Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.
Figure 42.3 The Italian-style temple at Sebasteia (formerly Samaria), built by Herod the Great, one of the first of its type outside Italy.
Figure 42.4 Plan of the Roman basilica in its most developed form (the so-called Basilica of Constantine in Rome). Adapted from Georg Dehio/Gustav von Bezold: Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes. Stuttgart: Verlag der Cotta'schen Buchhandlung 1887-1901, Plate No. 6.

Chapter 43

Figure 43.1 Pompeii, House VIII 2.16. Entrance of the house (“fauces”), walls faced with opus reticulatum, posts of opus testaceum. Photo by author.
Figure 43.2 Ostia, regio I Insula III, “Caseggiato di Diana” (I.iii.3-4), second century CE. Photo by author.
Figure 43.3 Roman villa in Borg, Saarland (Germany). Double-glazed windows in the caldarium (warm room) of the private bath suite (reconstruction, 1997). Photo by author.
Figure 43.4 Plan of the “standard Roman house” (“Plan des römischen Normalhouses”). Source: Overbeck/Mau 1884.
Figure 43.5 Pompeii, House of the Silver Wedding (Casa delle Nozze d’Argento, V 2,i), atrium. Photo by author.
Figure 43.6 Herculaneum, taberna (shop) V.6 with two upstairs rooms. Photo by Stephan Mols.
Figure 43.7 Pompeii, House VI 14.21-22 (“Fullonica di Marcus Vesonius Primus”). Plan: courtesy Miko Flohr.

Chapter 44

Figure 44.1 Reconstruction of the stages of wall preparation derived from stele from Sens, Lyon.

Chapter 45

Figure 45.2 Spin and twist of yarns.
Figure 45.3 Diagrams of basic weaves.
Figure 45.4 Diagrams of starting borders. Adapted from Grömer 2010, 126.
Figure 45.5 Exekias, Fragment of black-figured funerary plaque with meander patterned dress on the right (circa 540 bce). Source: Courtesy Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz.
Figure 45.6 Weave structure of meander pattern in Figure 45.5. Dark squares indicate lifted warp threads. Repeat after eight threads in each direction.
Figure 45.7 Appearance of the weave with all warp threads dark and all weft threads white.
Figure 45.8 The same structure with a color change in each warp and weft thread: all odd threads are dark, all even threads are white.
Figure 45.9 With this new color distribution a completely different pattern appears, but the weave structure is still the same as the one in Figures 45.6 and 45.7.

Chapter 46

Figure 46.1 Pont du Gard. Photo by author.
Figure 46.2 Roman road, Tarsus, Turkey. Photo by author.
Figure 46.3 Caesar’s Rhine Bridge. Source: John Soane, 1814.
Figure 46.4 Tombstone of Ammianus, Hieroplis. Photo by author.

Chapter 47

Figure 47.1 The thirteenth-century BCE site of the Menelaion, near Sparta. Photo by author.
Figure 47.2 Late Roman tower of the Carcassonne fortress, fifth century CE. Photo by author.
Figure 47.3 Roman tortoise battering ram, siege of Seleucia or Babylonia by Septimius Severus, 203 ce, Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome. Photo by author.
Figure 47.4 Hypothetical reconstruction of an Onager, Salzburg Museum. Photo by author.

Chapter 48

Figure 48.1 The Dendra panoply, Greece, circa 1450 BCE, Archaeological Museum of Nauplion. Photo by author.
Figure 48.2 Detail of the Argos panoply, Greece, circa 750–675 BCE. Archaeological Museum of Argos. Photo by author.
Figure 48.3 Detail of Senior Rank Macedonian warrior from the so-called Alexander Sarcophagus, Greece, circa 323 bce, from Sidon, Istanbul. Istanbul Archaeology Museum. Photo by author.
Figure 48.4 Helmet of Coolus-Haguenau typology with elements of Hellenistic typologies, Rome, from Pompeii, first century BCE–79 CE, Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Photo by author.

Chapter 49

Figure 49.2 The Dura–Europos Shield map reconstructed. Source: Pascal, Arnaud. 1989. “Une deuxième lecture du bouclier de Doura-Europos.” CRAI 373–89, figure 1. Courtesy Editions de Boccard.

Chapter 50

Figure 50.1 (a) Mules of Langres. Museum of Langres (France); (b) Oxen cart in Portugal. Photo by Malvaux circa 1910. Private collection (G. Raepsaet).
Figure 50.2 Ass with packsaddle in Ancient Greece. Adapted from P. Hartwig Griechische Meisterschalen, Berlin, 1893, plate 63. Cf. Raepsaet 2002, 70, Figure 5.
Figure 50.3 Small ancient Greek cart. Adapted from G. Brunns, Kabiren-Heiligtum in Theben, Berlin, 1940, I, plate 11. Cf. Raepsaet 2002, 170, Figures 89, 90.
Figure 50.4 Transport at Carrara (Italy). Illustrated postcard (circa 1910–1920). Private collection (G. Raepsaet).
Figure 50.5 Marius the donkey with a single yoke. Source: G. Raepsaet in Malagne-Rochefort (Belgium): Raepsaet 2002, 109-10, Figures 39, 40.
Figure 50.6 Funeral Monument from Gorsium, near Tac (Hungary). Source: G. Raepsaet. From Raepsaet 2002, 230, Figures 126 a-b.

Chapter 51

Figure 51.1 Greek Deck Officers. Source: DeAgostini Picture Library/Getty Images.

Chapter 52

Figure 52.1 Carved Roman sarcophagus relief (third century CE) housed in the Ny-Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. The relief depicts three sailing vessels at the entrance to a port, possibly Ostia, and is notable for the realism and detail of the subject matter. The central vessel carries a spritsail with the mast stepped far forward in the hull. The sprit is hidden behind the sail but is visible when the relief is viewed from the left. The other two vessels both carry square sails with artemon foresails, and the artist has shown their sails in a very different way, with the ruffled sailcloth indicating the path of the vertical brailing lines. The left-hand vessel has a conventional outwardly curved bow. In contrast, the right-hand vessel has a concave bow, forming a cutwater. Both types of hull are commonly depicted and have been attested in the archaeological evidence. Source: Julian Whitewright.
Figure 52.2 The key elements of mortise-and-tenon plank fastening.
Figure 52.3 The main rigging components and their arrangement, as found on Mediterranean square-sails from the Greek and Roman period.
Figure 52.4 The multi-linear nature of sailing rig development in the ancient Mediterranean, based on archaeological, iconographic, and literary sources. Rig families are differentiated by the different line styles.

Chapter 53

Figure 53.1 Fragment of an Athenian list of sacrifices, Face A, 403/2-400/399 BCE (Agora I 727). Source: American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations.

Chapter 54

Figure 54.1 Calendar of 354: June. Source: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.
Figure 54.2 Fasti Antiates Maiores, 84–55 BCE. Rome, Museo Nazionale Archeologico, Palazzo Massimo. Photo by author.
Figure 54.3 Fasti Praenestini, 6–9 CE . Rome, Museo Nazionale Archeologico, Palazzo Massimo. Photo by author.
Figure 54.4 Calendar of 354: Sunday. Source: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.
Figure 54.5 Hemerologion: January. Florence, Med. XXVIII 26. Adapted from Kubitschek 1915.

Chapter 55

Figure 55.1 Selçuk, Archaeological Museum, inv. no. 375: Spherical sundial from Aphrodisias. Photo by author.
Figure 55.2 Bergama, Archaeological Museum: Conical sundial supported by Atlas, from Pergamon. Photo by author.
Figure 55.3 Athens, next to the Roman Agora: Plane sundial on the Tower of the Winds, southeast side. Photo by author.
Figure 55.4 Athens, Agora Museum LCT-149: clepsydra. Source: American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations.