Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Notes on Contributors
Foreword
REFERENCES
Acknowledgments
PART I: Context
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Dental Anthropology
Who You Are, and Our Suggestions
Volume Organization and Content
Expertise and a Personal Touch
Now on to Chapter 2 (or Chapter 7)
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2: A Brief History of Dental Anthropology
Foundations (Nineteenth Century to 1963)
Development (1963–1991)
Maturation (1991–present)
Future Directions
REFERENCES
PART II: Dental Evolution
CHAPTER 3: Origins and Functions of Teeth: From “Toothed” Worms to Mammals
The Earliest Teeth
The Evolution of Teeth before the Mammals
Evolution of Mammalian Teeth and Mastication
The Fossil Record of Mammalian Teeth
Final Thoughts
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 4: The Teeth of Prosimians, Monkeys, and Apes
Numerical Variation
Morphological Variation
Combining Ecology and the Study of Non-human Primate Teeth: New Directions
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5: The Hominins 1: Australopithecines and Their Ancestors
Earliest Hominins
Plio-Pleistocene Hominins (the Australopithecines)
Outstanding Issues
Conclusions
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6: The Hominins 2: The Genus
Homo
Material and Methods
Results and Discussion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
PART III: The Human Dentition
CHAPTER 7: Terms and Terminology Used in Dental Anthropology
The Tooth
The Tooth Class
The Dentition
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 8: Anatomy of Individual Teeth and Tooth Classes
Anatomy of the Crown
Anatomy of the Root
Anatomy of the Pulp Cavity
Identification of Teeth
Deciduous Dentition
Incisors
Canines
Molars
Permanent Dentition
Incisors
Canines
Premolars
Molars
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9: The Masticatory System and Its Function
Forces and Displacements
Ingestion
Mastication
Swallowing
Linking Mastication to Swallowing
Oral Sensation and Digestion
Discussion
REFERENCES
PART IV: Dental Growth and Development
CHAPTER 10: An Overview of Dental Genetics
A Brief History of Dental Genetics
Epigenetics
Embryology
Aspects of Variation in Dental Crown Morphology
Familial Approaches to Understanding Dental Variation
A Brief History of Research in the Craniofacial Biology Research Group at the University of Adelaide
Locating and Identifying Genes Affecting Dental Development
Discordant Expression of Dental Features Despite Similar Genotypes
Future Directions for Research
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11: Odontogenesis
Tooth Number
Histological Tooth Formation
Molecular Signaling
Dental Age
Concluding Note
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 12: Tooth Eruption and Timing
Defining Tooth Eruption and Terminology
How Is Tooth Eruption Measured?
Clinical Eruption
Sequence, Age, and Polymorphisms in Clinical Eruption
What Is Root Stage at Clinical Eruption?
Duration of Clinical Eruption
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 13: Tooth Classes, Field Concepts, and Symmetry
Evolution of Multicusped Teeth in Mammals
Tooth Classes in the Human Dentition and Field Concepts
Observed Patterns of Variation
Formation of Teeth, Including the Role of the Enamel Knots
Different Models to Explain Dental Patterning
Complex Adaptive Systems
Symmetry and Asymmetry in the Dentition
Different Study Samples
What Has Our Research Shown?
Some Future Research Initiatives
Conclusion
REFERENCES
PART V: Dental Histology from the Inside Out
CHAPTER 14: The Pulp Cavity and Its Contents
Pulp Cavity Contents and Function
Pathology
Pulp Cavity Utility in Dental Anthropology
Ancient DNA Studies
Conclusion
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 15: Dentine and Cementum Structure and Properties
Dentine
Root Dentine Translucency: A Case Study
Cementum
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 16: Enamel Structure and Properties
Enamel Formation
Incremental Structures of Enamel
Conclusion
Case Study: A Histological Reconstruction of Crown Initiation and Formation Using Enamel Incremental Structures in the Developing Dentition of Post-Medieval Known-Age Children
Materials
Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
PART VI: Dental Morphometric Variation in Populations
CHAPTER 17: Identifying and Recording Key Morphological (Nonmetric) Crown and Root Traits
Crown Traits
Root Traits
Counting Methods
The Impact of Wear and Pathology
The Issue of Threshold Expressions
Key Traits and Inter-trait Correlations
Observations on Casts vs. Skeletons
Intra- and Inter-Observer Error
Applications of Dental Morphology
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 18: Assessing Dental Nonmetric Variation among Populations
Previous Population Affinity Studies
Recent Population Affinity Studies
A Dental Nonmetric Case Study from South Africa
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 19: Measurement of Tooth Size (Odontometrics)
Maximum Crown Dimensions and Composite Measurements
Alternative Dental Measurements
Reliability of Dental Measurements
Variation of Tooth Size within Populations
Discussion and Prospects for Future Research
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 20: Assessing Odontometric Variation among Populations
Previous Studies of Tooth Size Allocation among Recent Human Populations
Examination of Tooth Size Variation among Contemporary South Asian Populations
Conclusions and Future Directions
REFERENCES
PART VII: Dental Morphometric Variation in Individuals
CHAPTER 21: Forensic Odontology
Forensic Odontology
Forensic Anthropology
Individualizing Characteristics
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 22: Estimating Age, Sex, and Individual ID from Teeth
Age: Timing and Sequence
Sex and Ancestry
Idiosyncrasies
Conclusion
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 23: Indicators of Idiosyncratic Behavior in the Dentition
Dental Abrasion and Behavior
Dental Erosion/Corrosion
Body Modification, Social Identity, and Cultural Practices
Case Study: Dental Avulsion in North Africa
Conclusions
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 24: Dentition, Behavior, and Diet Determination
Indirect Dental Evidence for Diet and Behavior
Direct Dental Evidence for Diet and Behavior
Dental Microwear: History and Methodological Challenges
Neanderthal Behavioral Strategies: Evidence from Incisor Microwear Textures
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
PART VIII: Dental Health and Disease
CHAPTER 25: Crown Wear: Identification and Categorization
What Is Dental Wear?
Types of Dental Wear
Differentiation between Types of Wear
Assessment of Wear
The Utility of Dental Wear Data
Dental Wear as a Bias in Studies of Dental Morphology
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 26: Caries: The Ancient Scourge
Dental Caries in Ancient Human Remains
Recording Dental Caries Prevalence
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 27: Dental Stress Indicators from Micro- to Macroscopic
A Focus on Enamel Hypoplasias and Accentuated Striae
Enamel Growth Microstructures
Defect Formation in Relation to Enamel Growth Microstructures
Contribution to Bioarchaeology, Forensics, and Primatology
Contribution to Paleoanthropology: Neanderthal Case Study
Conclusion
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 28: A Host of Other Dental Diseases and Disorders
History
Anomalies of Tooth Position and Number
Alveolar Conditions
Conditions of the Tooth Crown and Root
Conclusion
REFERENCES
PART IX: The Future of Dental Anthropology
CHAPTER 29: New Directions in Dental Development Research
Back to the Future of Dental Morphogenesis
The Patterning Cascade Model of Tooth Crown Morphogenesis
Empirical Tests of the Patterning Cascade Model
Methodological Concerns
Inhibitory Cascade Model of Relative Tooth Size
Empirical Tests of the Inhibitory Cascade Model
Where to Go from Here?
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 30: Chemical and Isotopic Analyses of Dental Tissues
Structure and Chemical Composition of Enamel and Dentine
Tooth Formation and Reconstruction of Individual Life Histories
Applications
Future Developments
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 31: Non-Invasive Imaging Techniques
Defining an Imaging System
Choosing a Tomographic Imaging System for Optimum Image Quality
Determining Operator-Dependent Factors Affecting Image Quality
Imaging with Ionizing Radiations
Imaging with Non-ionizing Radiations
Open Access Online Archives of 3D Tomographic Scans
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 04
Table 4.1 Variation in dental formulae for extant non-human primate families.
Chapter 06
Table 6.1 Specimens used for the dental comparison.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Example of an annotated OpenMx script for a univariate genetic analysis of a single phenotype in twins.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Mean age entering alveolar eruption (AE) and partial eruption (PE) of deciduous teeth in years with modal root stage and range of tooth formation stages (from Liversidge and Molleson 2003).
Table 12.2 Mean age entering alveolar eruption (AE) and partial eruption (PE) of permanent teeth in years with modal root stage and range of tooth formation stages.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Coefficients of variation for permanent tooth size variables in three different human populations: the “key” teeth in each field generally display lower coefficients of variation.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Sample of frequencies of taurodontism reported in the literature.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Principal characteristics of the different types of cementum (see Cho and Garant 2000; Lieberman 1994; Foster 2012; Harrison and Roda 1995).
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Initiation times in days based on number of cross-striations recorded before or after birth. Pre-natal enamel counts are in bold and the first tooth to initiate after birth is underlined.
Table 16.2 Comparison of initiation times in years with other published data obtained using different recording methods.
Table 16.3 First molar cusp initiation, completion, and formation times from specimen 2365. The lower second molar initiation time and crown formation (up to time of death) are also shown. Results are compared to other published cusp formation times (population origin in italics).
Table 16.4 Cusp formation times in days recorded in well-centered sections.
Table 16.5 Comparison of cusp formation times in days with other published histological data (origin in bold). The results are displayed as a range and/or mean, with the number of individuals the data are derived from indicated in parentheses.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 List of 21 ASUDAS traits in 14 modern world dental samples.
Table 18.2 Component loadings, eigenvalues, and variances for the 14 world dental samples.
Table 18.3 Dental trait percentages (%) and number of individuals scored (n) for Kareeboom sample.
Table 18.4 Principal component loadings, eigenvalues, and variances for the Kareeboom and four South African comparative samples.
Table 18.5 MMD distance matrix for 28 traits among Kareeboom and the four South African comparative samples.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Samples used in the study.
Table 19.2 Principal component loadings among Northern Pakistanis.
Table 19.3 Descriptive statistics of crown dimensions by sample and by sex (morphogenetic field reversals in bold).
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Samples used in the study.
Table 20.2 Unrotated principal component loadings, eigenvalues, and percentage of variance explained among all groups based on raw measurements.
Table 20.3 Varimax-rotated principal component loadings, eigenvalues, and percentage of variance explained among all groups based on raw measurements.
Table 20.4 Unrotated principal component loadings, eigenvalues, and percentage of variance explained among females based on geometrically scaled measurements.
Table 20.5 Unrotated principal component loadings, eigenvalues, and percentage of variance explained among males based on geometrically scaled measurements.
Table 20.6 Unrotated principal component loadings, eigenvalues, and percentage of variance explained among males and females based on geometrically scaled measurements.
Table 20.7 Group assignments from canonical variates analysis of raw data.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Methods and tests of methods for estimating age in subadults.
Table 21.2 Methods and tests of methods for estimating age in adults.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Anisotropy (
epLsar
) and textural fill volume (
Tfv
) descriptive statistics for the Neanderthals by climate, and the modern human comparative groups.
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Morphological dental trait frequency differences by wear grade.
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Standards for recording carious lesions. Stages based on size and progression of lesion, although some do not include affected surface. Information in the recording process is described as a basis for identifying and describing the lesions.
Chapter 31
Table 31.1 Advantages and disadvantages of several non-destructive imaging systems of teeth.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 (a) Albert A. Dahlberg (right) and the first editor (left) at Arizona State University. (b) Christy G. Turner II (left) and the second editor (right) at Scott’s home in Fairbanks, Alaska. Both photographs taken a long, long time ago.
Figure 2.2 Many of the dental anthropologists referenced in this chapter and elsewhere in the volume, at the Albert Dahlberg Memorial Symposium on Dental Morphology and Evolution, 1995 meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Oakland, California. Front row (l–r): A.M. (Sue) Haeussler, Thelma Dahlberg, Patricia Smith. Middle row (l–r): Yaşar Işcan, Andrea Cucina, Lassi Alvesalo, Grant Townsend, John Mayhall, John Lukacs, Simon Hillson, Tasman Brown. Back row (l–r): Donald Morris, Diane Hawkey, Richard Scott, Phillip Walker, Edward Harris, Joel Irish, Yuji Mizoguchi.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 Cusp names and locations according to the Cope–Osborn model, as illustrated in: (a) human upper right first molar, and (b) human lower right first molar. Numbers denote original hypothesized order in which the cusps were thought to have evolved (though in two cases these have been shown to be incorrect). See text for details. For orientation purposes, the top of the image is the mesial direction, bottom is distal, outer edges buccal, and center lingual.
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 (a) The right mandibular dentition of the aye-aye (
Daubentonia madagascarensis
, USNM 199494). Note the elongated incisors, lack of premolars, and simple, quadrate molars. (b) A comparison of the four-toothed toothcomb (left) of
Propithecus diadema
(USNM 63349) and the six-toothed toothcomb (right) of
Lemur catta
(USNM 395517).
Figure 4.2 Severe tooth wear and ante-mortem tooth loss (marked by black arrows) in a
Lemur catta
individual from the Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar.
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1 LP3 morphology in fossil hominins and extant apes. (a)
Pan troglodytes;
(b)
Australopithecus afarensis (
A.L. 128-23, reversed); (c)
Paranthropus aethiopicus
(L398-12, reversed). On specimen A, the mesial marginal ridge (Mmr), distal marginal ridge (Dmr), mesial protoconid crest (Mpc), distal protoconid crest (Dpc), transverse crest (Tc), and protoconid (Prd) are labeled for reference. The anterior fovea is bounded by the Tc, Mpc, and Mmr, while the posterior fovea is bounded by the Tc, Dpc, and Dmr. Specimen B retains much of the plesiomorphic feature set evident in Specimen A; however, Specimen C departs in having a fully bicuspid crown, expanded posterior fovea, and fully enclosed anterior fovea.
Figure 5.2 Maxillary tooth size in
Australopithecus
and
Paranthropus
. Averages of linear dimensions of mesiodistal (MD) length, and buccolingual (BL) and labiolingual (LL) breadth, are reported.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Lower molar series from (a) Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos (
Homo heidelbergensis
), (b) Taforalt (
H. sapiens
), (c) Gran Dolina-TD6 (
H. antecessor
), and (d) Dmanisi sites. Note the derived M1>M2>M3 sequence in
H. sapiens
and
H. heidelbergensis
, with simplification of the occlusal surface and the loss of cusps.
Homo antecessor
displays both a primitive molar sequence and primitive occlusal morphology. The Dmanisi specimen, despite differential reduction of the molar series, preserves a remarkably primitive aspect (see text for discussion).
Figure 6.2 Buccal, mesial, lingual, distal, and enlarged occlusal views of a right lower third premolar from the (a) Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos site and (b) TD6 level of Atapuerca-Gran Dolina site. Note the derived crown and root morphology of the Middle Pleistocene specimen in contrast to the primitive conformation of the
H. antecessor
specimen (see text for more details).
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 Terms used to denote the various hard tissues and areas of a tooth (LM1) defined in the text.
Figure 7.2 Terms of orientation in (a) maxillary (i.e., upper) and (b) mandibular (lower) arches and the four tooth types defined in the text.
Figure 7.3 Names and numbers used to denote major molar cusps, here illustrated in right upper (UM1) and right lower (LM1) first molars. M=mesial, B=buccal, L=lingual, and D=distal, as defined in the text.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 (a) Deciduous maxillary dentition denoting two incisors, one canine, and two molars in left quadrant. (b) Deciduous mandibular dentition denoting two incisors, one canine, and two molars in right quadrant. (c) Radiograph of maxillary dentition in A, showing root structure of teeth and developing permanent tooth buds in alveolus. (d) Radiograph of mandibular dentition in B, showing root structure of teeth and developing permanent tooth buds (e.g., LM1) in alveolus. See text for details. Dental remains of a medieval child from the Poulton Site, Cheshire, UK.
Figure 8.2 (a) Permanent maxillary dentition denoting two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in left quadrant. (b) Permanent mandibular dentition denoting two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in right quadrant. (c) UP1 showing common two-root variant. (d) UM2 showing three roots common in maxillary molars. (e) LP1 showing single root with Tomes’ variant (i.e., groove). (f) LM2 showing two roots common in mandibular molars. See text for details. All photos of C-Group Nubian remains from Hierakonpolis (a and b) and Christian Nubian remains from Semna South (c–f) by Joel D. Irish.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Force generation by some of the most important muscles. The mandible has been separated anteriorly at the fused mandibular symphysis to view attachment areas (shaded) to its internal surfaces. (a) Anatomical arrangement of the muscles of mastication: temporalis, masseter, and medial and lateral pterygoids. Other muscles important in jaw opening (digastric) or control of food particles in the mouth (anterior to posterior: orbicularis oris, buccinators, and the superior constrictor of the pharynx) are also shown. (b) Approximate direction of action, depending on what fibers are activated, of the muscles of mastication shown. Relative magnitude of the maximum force they can exert are indicated by the size of arrows. The temporalis is divided arbitrarily into anterior and posterior fibers. The two heads of the lateral pterygoid are also separated, but this has greater importance. The superior head probably has a completely different role to that of the larger inferior head (which is active in jaw opening), being active in jaw closing. Also indicated is the attachment site of the mylohyoid to the mandible, a muscle acting strongly during swallowing, and the genioglossus, the largest tongue muscle.
Figure 9.2 Pattern of jaw displacement. The border movements (maximum movement in each direction) of the jaw are illustrated by sketching the movement of the lower central incisors in both side (a) and frontal (b) views. The main muscles that produce these movements are indicated. The box (bottom) shows a stereotyped chewing cycle shown as a solid black line. Cycles are highly variable, but rarely reach the borders (shown in gray).
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Path diagram showing relationships between twins P1 and P2 for a single trait. Variation in phenotypes (square boxes) is influenced by unmeasured variables (circles), i.e., additive effects of an individual's genes: (A) non-additive effects of individual's genes, (D) influence of environment shared by co-twins (C), and unique environment experienced by individual twin (E). All variation can be quantified into linear relationships between latent and measured variables, related by parameters (a, d, c, and e), to indicate that additive genetic effects have a correlation (r) of 1.0 in MZ, and 0.5 in DZ twins; correlation between shared environments is 1.0. See text for details.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Major stages of tooth formation. (a) Induction of mesoderm by ectoderm initiates the process (and defines the site) of primary tooth formation. Epithelial cells show almost no change in shape or function. (b) Mesenchyme adjacent to the epithelial invagination condenses during the bud stage. (c) Differential growth of the ectoderm creates a cap-like structure coronal to the mesenchyme (enamel organ). Histodifferentiation is prominent in the cap stage, where similar epitheliual cells transform into separate shapes and functions. If a tooth fails to develop (hypodontia), it often reaches the cap stage before formation ceases and the (unmineralized) tissues are resorbed. Enamel knots are visible in the cap stage. (d) The early bell stage organizes the incipient structures that in the late bell stage begin producing dentine and enamel. There initially is a basement membrane separating ameloblasts and odontoblasts. (e) The diagonal line in the late bell stage is enlarged in Figure 11.2 to show constituent histological layers. Notice the offshoot in the late bell stage that is the tooth bud of the permanent successor tooth. A “maturation” phase follows the bell stage, during which the root mineralizes and the tooth erupts into occlusion.
Figure 11.2 Several histological layers that differentiate during the late bell stage and result in enamel formation (amelogenesis) and dentine formation (dentinogenesis). Both enamel and dentine are deposited appositionally as organic matrix and water and subsequently mineralize, a two-step process. Earlier, a basement membrane (actually a matrix beneath the epithelium) separated enamel from dentine, becoming the dento-enamel junction. Amelobasts die as the tooth erupts, so enamel has no reparative ability. Notice the polarized arrangements of the ameloblasts and odontoblasts, resulting in well-organized mineral deposition. Dentine formation begins in the bell stage next to the IEE where cusp development begins. Differential deposition of dentine with age leads to asymmetric reduction of the pulp chamber, termed pulpal recession.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Density curves showing the variation in age of gingival/partial eruption of deciduous teeth. Maxillary teeth are shown above and mandibular teeth shown below. Data were collated from 21 published reports where data for males and females are pooled (see Liversidge 2003).
Figure 12.2 Density curves showing the variation in age of partial eruption of permanent teeth. Maxillary teeth are shown above and mandibular teeth shown below. Mean and standard deviation were calculated using probit regression from raw data from dental radiographs of 794 children aged 3–16. Third molar data calculated from 1,464 dental radiographs of individuals aged 11–25.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Tooth development during initiation and morphogenesis, relating (a) macroscopic variations in number, size, and shape to (b) molecular and cellular/tissue stages at which they arose (epithelium=light gray; mesenchyme=dark gray). (c) Concomitant interactions at the latter level between genetic, epigenetic, and environmental influences that give rise to higher-level organs, such as tooth germs that develop at specific sites in the arch. The tooth is affected by the timing of various developmental stages and by its position compared with other developing teeth. Cellular and molecular aspects derived from http://bite-it.helsinki.fi/. The Dentition: The Outcomes of Morphogenesis Leading to Variations of Tooth Number, Size and Shape.
Australian Dental Journal
, 59(1 Suppl): 131–142.
Figure 13.2 A unifying etiological model that incorporates the clinical and epidemiological findings for variations in tooth size, shape and number. The Dentition: The Outcomes of Morphogenesis Leading to Variations of Tooth Number, Size and Shape.
Australian Dental Journal
, 59(1 Suppl): 131–142.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Anatomical features in the mandibular molars of
Homo sapiens
(left),
Pan troglodytes
(center), and
Gorilla gorilla
(right), as mentioned in the text.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Dentine and cementum incremental structures (a) Diagram illustrating the pattern of incremental growth in dentine and enamel. (b) and (c) Micrographs of human intercuspal circumpulpal dentine low in the crown showing dentinal tubules running approximately vertically and short- and long-period incremental lines running horizontally. (b) Ground section viewed in polarized light. (c) Demineralized silver-stained section viewed in transmitted light. The long-period lines are approximately 20 μm apart and there are seven or eight short-period lines between them in both of these sections (Dean 1998). Fieldwidth 225 μm. Original magnification x500. (d) Incremental lines in cementum from a decalcified section stained with picrothionin. Original magnification x75.
Figure 15.2 (a) Macroscale illustration of the structure of attachment of the root and microscale regions involving root dentine, cementum, periodontal ligaments (PDL), cementum-dentine junction (CDJ), and alveolar bone (a, c: light micrographs; b, d: atomic force microscopy). (b) Schematic of the periodontium.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 (a) Transmitted light microscope image of an area of lateral enamel in a UI1, with some underlying dentine visible in lower left corner (width 850 µm; section thickness ≈100 µm). From lower right to upper left, long-period incremental lines known as striae of Retzius can be seen radiating away from the enamel–dentine junction. Many striae are emerging on the crown surface to form perikymata. Examples of more pronounced or marked accentuated striae are also visible, including a pair radiating away from the enamel–dentine junction on the left. With a slight angle to the right, enamel prisms run almost vertically, with cross striations marking each prism at ≈ 4 µm intervals. (b) High-magnification transmitted light microscope image of enamel from a UI2 (width 300 µm; section thickness ≈100 µm). Several striae of Retzius can be seen running almost vertically from lower right to upper left. A prominent accentuated stria is also visible on the left. Enamel prisms run almost vertically from lower left to upper right and cross-striations can clearly be seen along their lengths at ≈ 4 µm intervals.
Figure 16.2 Diagram illustrating the crown formation of different molar cusps from specimen 2365 using the data from Table 16.3 and highlighting the overlap between M1 and M2 crown formation.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Morphological crown traits. (a) Vertical arrows point at mesial and distal marginal ridges, the defining characteristic of shovel-shaped incisors; note barrel-shaped UI2, the most pronounced form of shoveling for this tooth. Another arrow points to mesial marginal ridge on labial surface of UI1, the diagnostic feature of double shoveling (CGT). (b) Arrow points to mesial canine ridge, or Bushman canine; antimere shows a
tuberculum dentale
not incorporated into mesial marginal ridge (GRS). (c) Uto-Aztecan premolar; note strong buccalward displacement of distal margin of buccal cusp; along distal margin is a fovea (CGT). (d) Arrows point to
tuberculum dentale
on all upper anterior teeth; this cingular trait often takes the form of ridges on UI1 and UI2, while UC exhibits pronounced tubercle. Note symmetry in trait expression between antimeres (CGT). (e) Arrows point to Carabelli's trait on mesiolingual cusp of dm2 and UM1; this cingular trait ranges from small groove to large free-standing cusp (GRS). (f) Protostylid is expressed as positive form on mesiobuccal cusp of all three lower molars; this cingular trait shows some association with Carabelli's trait, its counterpart in upper molars (CGT).
Figure 17.2 Morphological crown traits. (a) Conical odontome noted by arrow; wear shows dentine component to odontome (CGT). (b) LM1 and LM2 exhibit enamel extensions that project between buccal surfaces of roots; this trait can also be expressed by upper molars (CGT). (c) Upper molars often exhibit four major cusps as shown by UM1; cusp number 4, hypocone, is distinct on UM1 but missing on UM2, producing 3-cusped upper molar (GRS). (d) Lower molars often exhibit five cusps, but here both LM1 and LM2 fail to express hypoconulid, producing 4-cusped lower molars. Arrow points to location where hypoconulid would be expressed, if present (CGT). (e) Rare tricusped UP1 with one buccal cusp and two distinct lingual cusps (CGT). (f) Cusp 5 expressed as small tubercle between hypocone and metacone of upper molars; arrow points to C5 on UM2 (GRS).
Figure 17.3 Morphological crown traits. (a) In this mandible there are three right premolars. LP1 exhibits single lingual cusp while LP2 and supernumerary premolar exhibit multiple lingual cusps (GRS). (b) LM1 exhibiting deflecting wrinkle (top arrow) and cusp 6 (bottom arrow) between entoconid and hypoconulid (GRS). (c) LM1 exhibits cusp 7 between metaconid and entoconid; also of note, LP1 fails to exhibit lingual cusp with free apex (grade 0) while LP2 exhibits odontome (GRS). (d) UI1 bilateral winging where distal margins of UI1 are everted from normal contour of parabolic arcade (white lines show angle of eversion) (CGT). (e) Interruption grooves that involve both crown and root; expression almost identical between UI2 antimeres (GRS). (f) Conical peg-shaped UI2 (GRS).
Figure 17.4 Morphological crown and root traits. (a) ASUDAS plaque showing 0 and 5 grades of presence for LC distal accessory ridge; trait can also be observed on UC (GRS). (b) Very large paramolar tubercle on buccal cusp of UM2; such forms suggest fused supernumerary tooth (CGT). (c) LM1 has six cusps while LM2 has four; for LM1, there is cusp contact between 2 and 3, producing Y-pattern, while for LM2, cusps 1 and 4 are in contact, producing X-pattern (GRS). (d) Peg-shaped UM3; in ASUDAS, variant of UM3 is noted as pegged-reduced-missing, as these are considered different grades in a continuum (GRS). (e) Four loose teeth from one individual; from left to right 1-rooted UP2, 2-rooted UP1, 2-rooted LC, and LP1 exhibiting Tomes' root (GRS). (f) Supernumerary distolingual root produces 3-rooted lower first molar (3RM1); root traits can be scored by observing sockets even when tooth is missing (GRS).
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Scatterplot of the first two principal components among the 14 worldwide samples based on 21 ASUDAS traits showing dental affinities—overlaid on world map for general reference (see text). The two components account for 69.22% of the total variance (51.74% along x-axis and 17.49% along y-axis).
Figure 18.2 Complete linkage cluster analysis dendrogram (top) and multidimensional scaling (bottom) of MMD distances among Kareeboom and the four South African comparative samples based on 26 ASUDAS traits (see text for details).
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Location of northern Pakistani samples included in the analysis.
Figure 19.2 Loadings for the first five principal components (accounting for 61.7% of the total variation) from Table 19.2 for northern Pakistani males, plotted to visualize the apportionment of tooth size along the dental arches as described in the text.
Figure 19.3 Loadings for the first five principal components (accounting for 69.7% of the total variance) from Table 19.2 for northern Pakistani females, plotted to visualize the apportionment of tooth size along the dental arches as described in the text.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Location of samples used in the study.
Figure 20.2 Ordination of the first three varimax-rotated principal components based on raw measurements among (a) females and (b) males. See text for percent of variance explained by axis and other details.
Figure 20.3 Ordination of the first three unrotated principal components based on raw measurements among (a) females, (b) males, and with (c) sexes pooled. See text for percent of variance explained by axis and other details.
Figure 20.4 Ordination of the first three canonical axes based on raw measurements among (a) females, (b) males, (c) with sexes pooled, and (d) with sexes specified. See text for percent of variance explained by axis and other details.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Distinctive wear pattern. Notice overjet, crowding, and positioning of lower incisors relative to the uppers. The right LI1 has two wear facets rather than the usual one.
Figure 22.2 Dens invaginatus, two views of a single UI2. Note the enamel structure within the primary dentine.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Representative idiosyncratic markers of behavior: (a) uneven wear suggestive of extra-masticatory behavior, Gobero site burial G3B8; (b) bilateral maxillary central incisor avulsion, Gobero site burial G1B1; (c) IP groove in unidentified mandibular molar, Windover Pond burial 103; (d) lingual surface abrasion and sloping wear facets on the maxillary central incisors, possibly related to extra-masticatory behavior, Windover Pond burial 74; (e) lingual root surface wear facets on the mandibular incisors and canines, note also the missing central incisors that likely reflect ante-mortem tooth loss related to extra-masticatory behaviors, Windover Pond, burial 74; (f) lingual molar surface abrasion of the maxillary first molar, origin unknown but possibly related to fiber processing, Windover Pond burial 103; (g) incisor filing/chipping or extra-masticatory wear of the maxillary central incisors combined with possible in process avulsion of the mandibular incisors, Gobero burial G1B6. All photos by C.M. Stojanowski.
Figure 23.2 Map of Africa showing sites with avulsion (black circle) and without avulsion (white circle). (a) Late Pleistocene—sample key: 1. Rabat, 2. Khef el Hammar, 3. Hattab II, 4. Kifan Bel Ghomari, 5. lfri n'Ammar, 6. Taforalt, 7. La Mouillah, 8. Columnata, 9. Grotte du Polygone, 10. Grotte de la Tranchée, 11. Abri Alain, 12. El-Bachir, 13. Djemar Schkra, 14. Rachgoun, 15. Cap Tènes, 16. Chenoua, 17. Pointe Pescade, 18. Bains Romains, 19. Champlain, 20. Ali Sacha, 21. Taza 1, 22. Afalou Bou Rhummel, 23. Ternifine, 24. Mechta el Arbi, 25. Djebel Taya, 26. Gambetta, 27. Kef-Oum-Touiza, 28. Soleb, 29. Taramsa Hill, 30. Esna, 31. Wadi Kubbaniya, 32. Tushka, 33. Wadi Halfa, 34. Jebel Sahaba, 35. Kabua, 36. lshango, 37. Guli Waabayo, 38. Mlambalasi, 39. lwo Eleru. (b) Early Holocene – sample key: 1. Rachgoun, 2. Columnata, 3. Ain Keda, 4. Mesloug 1, 5. Ain Boucherit, 6. Medjez II, 7. Medjez I, 8. Mechta el Arbi, 9. Grotte des Hyènes, 10. El Mahder, 11. Koudiat Kherrouba, 12. Site 59, 13. Faid Souar, 14. Oued Medfoun, 15. Site 51, 16. Aioun Berriche, 17. Ain Misteheyia, 18. Damous el-Ahmar, 19. Bekkaria, 20. Khanguet el-Mouhaad, 21. Ain Dokkara, 22. Ain Bahir, 23. Ain Meterchem, 24. Bir Oum Ali, 25. Kilomètre 3,200, 26. Abri Clariond, 27. El-Mekta, 28. Asselar, 29. Hassi-el-Abiod. 30. Gobero, 31. Shum Laka, 32. Wadi Halfa, 33. Saggai 1. 34. Early Khartoum, 35. Al-Khiday, 36. Galana Boi, 37. Lopoy, 38. Lothagam, 39. Gamble’s Cave.
Figure 23.3 Map of Africa showing sites with avulsion (black circle) and without avulsion (white circle) for the Middle Holocene. Note the data from West Africa are as young as 2 kya; given the dearth of sites from this part of Africa we felt it was important to be more inclusive for this region. Sample key: 1. Mugharet el'Aliya, 2. Douar Debagh, 3. Dar-es-Soltan 1, 4. Izriten, 5. Sebkha Laasailia, 6. Sebkha Amtal, 7. Sebkha Mahariat, 8. Sebkha Edjaila, 9. Sebkha Lemheiris, 10. Tintan, 11. Chami, 12. Rio Salado, 13. Grotte des Troglodytes, 14. El Cuartel, 15. Champlain, 16. Ali Bacha, 17. Djebel Fartas, 18. La Meskiana, 19. Kef el Agab, 20. Nabta Playa, 21. Wadi Halfa, 22. R12, 23. Jebel Shaqadud, 24. Jebel Moya, 25. Wadi Howar, 26. Yao, 27. Kourounkorokale, 28. Tessalit-Reg de Zaki, 29. Kesret-el-Ganl, 30. Amekni 1, 31. Uan Muhuggiag, 32. Emi Lulu, 33. Adrar Bous, 34. Iwelen, 35. Hassi-el-Abiod, 36. Ibalaghen, 37. Mentes, 38. Tamaya Mellet, 39. Kobadi, 40. In Tuduf, 41. Chin Tafidet, 42. Afunfun, 43. Gobero, 44. Areschima, 45. Rop, 46. Laakpa, 47. Shum Laka, 48. Lowasera, 49. Laikipia, 50. Hyrax Hill, 51. Cole's Burial Site, 52. Makalia Burial Site, 53. Bromhead's Site, 54. Njoro River Cave, 55. Willey's Kopje, 56. Naivasha Railway Site, 57. Mt. Suswa, 58. Lukenya Hill (GvJm 202), 59. Ngorongoro Crater.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Three-dimensional point clouds of Neanderthal anterior teeth showing differences in texture by environment. The Combe Grenal (a) and La Ferrassie (b) individuals inhabited cold, open steppe climates, whereas the Shanidar (c) and Kebara (d) Neanderthals are from warm climates. Each point cloud measures 138 × 102 μm. See text for details.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 (a) Right UC exhibiting well-demarcated attritional facets lingually for the LC (solid arrow), and interstitially for the right UI2 (dashed arrow). (b) Right LM1, LP2, and LP1 with buccal attritional facet margins becoming smoother (arrows) due to dietary abrasion. (c) Right LM1 and LM2 exhibiting depression (arrows) of exposed dentine due to abrasion (or corrosion). (d) Localized labial abrasion (arrows) on the left UI1, UI2, and UC due to repetitive behavior, possibly related to dental hygiene.
Figure 25.2 (a) Apparent corrosion affecting lingual/palatal surface of maxillary teeth. Note loss of superficial morphology and glazed appearance, particularly on right UM1, UP2, and more anterior teeth (highlighted by box). The right UM1 and UP2s and UP1s of both antimeres appear progressively denuded of enamel occlusally, progressing to absence of lingual enamel on anterior teeth. See also the unusual presence of a third premolar on left antimere and absence of the left UM1—either through antemortem loss or (unlikely) congenital absence. (b) Enlarged inset of right UM1–UI2 illustrating darker dentine showing through thinned enamel on UM1 to UP1 (arrows) and enamel ringing around exposed dentine on UC and UI2. Corrosion appears to have outpaced attrition, since few facets are evident.
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 (a) Gross carious lesion involving the right LM1 and LM2. This lesion eroded the enamel, dentine, and penetrated the pulp chamber. The LM3 has a brown discoloration in the absence of enamel demineralization on the occlusal surface, which Hillson (2001, 2008) recognizes as an initial stage of cariogenesis. Adult female from the Hobi site, Aichi prefecture, Japan, Late/Final Jomon period (ca. 4000–2300 BP). (b) Complete destruction of tooth crown by cariogeneis in adult male from Doigahama site, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan, Yayoi period (ca. 2500–1700 BP).
Figure 26.2 (a) Carious lesions of LM1 and LM2 in adult female from Nakazuma site, Chubu Prefecture, Japan, Late Jomon period (ca. 4000–3000 BP). The lesions involve both cervical and root sections of the tooth. (b) Carious lesions of UM1 in adult male from Yosekura site, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan, Late Jomon period (ca. 4000–3000 BP). The lesion involves both the cervical and root sections of the tooth.
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Forms of enamel hypoplasia. (a) Two furrow-form defects (linear enamel hypoplasias) in unerupted right LC of Point Hope specimen 385 from American Museum of Natural History. (b) Plane-form defect in cusp of left LC of Hamman-Todd specimen 1014 from Cleveland Museum of Natural History. (c) Pit-form defects in both LCs of Hamman-Todd specimen 339 from Cleveland Museum of Natural History.
Figure 27.2 (a and b): a is an inset showing portion of enamel from longitudinal section of tooth in b. Perikymata cover the enamel surface of the tooth: their wave-like form is illustrated in a and grooves between perikymata are denoted with asterisks. Perikymata are surface manifestations of striae of Retzius (also known as long-period lines) shown as oblique dark lines internal to enamel in both a and b. In a, enamel rods (also known as enamel prisms) marking paths traveled by secretory ameloblasts are shown. Alternating light and dark banding along each prism represent daily cross-striations (also known as short-period lines). (c and d): Both diagrams (based on Hillson and Bond’s 1997 model) illustrate furrow form defects with identical numbers of perikymata within them. Each defect has occlusal and cervical wall. In occlusal wall, a larger area of each Retzius plane than normal for perikymata is exposed, while in cervical wall, perikymata spacing returns to normal. Notice that in c the furrow goes deeper into the enamel than in d. In addition, the defect in c is narrower than in d. Different defect dimensions of c and d are caused by differences in angle that striae of Retzius make with crown surface in each case. For disruptions of identical duration, as with c and d, very sharply angled striae of Retzius result in a broad shallow defect in d, and a narrower deeper defect in c. Because striae of Retzius are sharply angled in the occlusal region of a crown and become less acute as the cervix is approached, defects of identical duration will manifest differently in the occlusal region of the tooth (appearing similar to d) than they do in the cervical region (appearing similar to c).
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Developmental anomalies. (a) UC/UP1 transposition in individual from Santa Cruz Island, California site SCRI-3 (British Museum Specimen SK 10009). (b) Impaction of LM3s, Burial 20 from Chelechol ra Orrak, Republic of Palau. (c) Right LM1 in BMG-1, a young Gallina phase individual from New Mexico, US. (d) Ectopic eruption of UC, same individual as in image C. (All photographs by G.C. Nelson.)
Figure 28.2 Four-level scoring method for periodontal disease by Ogden (2008). (1) Alveolar margin meets root at knife-edged acute angle (no disease). (2) Alveolar margin blunt and flat-topped with slightly raised rim (mild periodontitis). (3) Alveolar margin rounded and porous, with trough of 2–4 mm in depth between tooth and alveolus (moderate periodontitis). (4) Alveolar margin ragged and porous, with irregular trough or funnel >5 mm in depth between tooth and alveolus (severe periodontitis).
Figure 28.3 Alveolar conditions. (a) Small apical void at root tip of right UI2, likely a granuloma in individual 7 from Gallina site Cañada Simon I, New Mexico, US. (b) Apical void, likely caused by cyst, around root of left UP1 in same individual as in A. Note difference between larger cyst and smaller granuloma void at tip of the left UC. (c) Resorption due to tooth loss in largely edentulous mandible of Individual 5 from Cañada Simon I. (d) Resorption due to tooth loss of right LM1 in burial 586 from Iron Age site of Samad Oasis, Sultanate of Oman. All other teeth were in good health at death. (All photographs by G.C. Nelson.)
Figure 28.4 Conditions of tooth crown and root. (a) Dental fluorosis in right UI1 and UI2 from Neolithic Pakistan. (b) Light betel staining in right mandibular tooth row of Burial 11, Chelechol ra Orrak, Republic of Palau. (c) Dark betel staining in left mandibular tooth row of Burial 18, Chelechol ra Orrak. (d) Hypercementosis on isolated LM3, Specimen 5149 from Chelechol ra Orrak. (Photo A is modified after photograph by John R. Lukacs, all others by G.C. Nelson.)
Chapter 29
Figure 29.1 Morphogenesis via Patterning Cascade Model. Top row shows growing dental epithelium with closely spaced enamel knots at three successive time points. After the primary enamel knot forms, secondary enamel knots form only when dental epithelium grows large enough to exceed the boundaries of the zone of inhibition around the primary knot. At this point in time, the primary enamel knot has stimulated downfolding of enamel epithelium at what will be the first cusp of this tooth. As the epithelium grows larger still, exceeding the inhibition zones of secondary enamel knots, additional enamel knots can form. At this point in time, downfolding of epithelium coordinated by the first enamel knot has proceeded to a more advanced state, and downfolding of secondary enamel knots has begun. Bottom row illustrates the same process, but with larger inhibitory zones around enamel knots that prevent formation of the additional enamel knot that was formed in tooth germ, depicted in top row.
Figure 29.2 Molar proportions in selected mammalian taxa, following Polly (2007). White areas contain molar proportions are predicted by the Inhibitory Cascade Model (Kavanagh et al. 2007); gray areas contain molar proportions whose development cannot be explained by this model alone. Lines represent reduced major axis regressions from large multispecies comparative studies or, in the case of the experimental mouse, data from in vitro manipulations within a single species. Experimental mouse and murine rodent regressions were reported by Kavanagh et al. (2007), canids by Asahara (2013), early mammals of Mesozoic and Cenozoic by Halliday and Goswami (2013), and arvicoline rodents (voles and lemmings) by Renvoise et al. (2009).
Chapter 30
Figure 30.1 Possible influences on trace element and stable isotope values measured in dental tissues; includes variables contributing to the composition of dental tissues during tissue development, during the lifetime of an individual and after death, and the effect of analytic procedures.
Chapter 31
Figure 31.1 The geometric configuration of an industrial tomographic system. The source-to-object and object-to-detector distances are important geometric parameters affecting the image quality. See text for details.
Figure 31.2 The inner structure of a fossil hominin inner ear from Kromdraai B (South Africa), KB 6067 (Braga et al. 2013) investigated at exactly the same anatomical level through (a) x-ray microtomography and (b) x-ray synchrotron (x-ray-SR, right image). In the case of this mineralized fossil, note the improvement in contrast resolution when using x-ray-SR (right). See text for details.
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