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Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
I Introduction
1. I.1 Ammunition Types and Characteristics of Their Damaging Effect
2. I.2 Generalized Characteristics of the Damaging Effect
3. I.3 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Shooting
4. I.4 Self‐assessment Questions
5. References
1 Fragmentation Ammunitions
1. 1.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions. General Information
2. 1.2 The Mechanics of High‐speed Deformation and Destruction of Shells Under the Action of an Explosion
3. 1.3 Modeling the Processes of Explosive Fragmentation of Shells Using Standard Samples
4. 1.4 Statistical Models of the Fragment Fields and the Fragment Spectra
5. 1.5 External Ballistics of Fragments
6. 1.6 Kinds of the Damaging Effect of Fragments
7. 1.7 Laws of Target Damage with Fragments
8. 1.8 Specified Zone of Target Damage with Fragmentation Munitions
9. 1.9 Methods for Optimizing the Parameters of Fragmentation Munitions
10. 1.10 Vulnerability Characteristics of Objects to the Effects of Fragments, Determination of Safe Distances
11. 1.11 Self‐assessment Questions
12. References
2 Ammunitions with Shaped Charges
1. 2.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions. General Information
2. 2.2 Fundamentals of Cumulative Effects
3. 2.3 Explosion Loading of Shaped Charge Liners, Their Throwing, and Collapse
4. 2.4 Formation, Tension of Metal Jets, and Their Penetration into Targets
5. 2.5 The Influence of Design Parameters and Manufacturing Technology of Shaped Charges on the Penetration Effect
6. 2.6 Influence of the Operational Conditions of Ammunitions with Shaped Charges on Their Damaging Effects
7. 2.7 Formation and Effect of Explosively Formed Projectiles
8. 2.8 The Effect of Ammunition with Shaped Charges on the Armor of Modern Tanks
9. 2.9 Methods for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Ammunition with Shaped Charges
10. 2.10 Self‐assessment Questions
11. References
3 High‐explosive Ammunitions
1. 3.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions. General Information
2. 3.2 Parameters of an Air Shock Wave During the Explosion of High Explosives
3. 3.3 Reflection of Shock Waves from Barriers and Flow Around Barriers
4. 3.4 Determination of Parameters of an Air Shock Wave During Detonation of Fuel–Air Mixtures
5. 3.5 Evaluation of the Damaging Effect of Shock Waves on Various Objects
6. 3.6 Explosion in Water
7. 3.7 Underground Explosion
8. 3.8 Self‐assessment Questions
9. References
4 Penetrating Ammunitions
1. 4.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions. General Information
2. 4.2 Interaction of Impactors with Targets
3. 4.3 Formulation of Penetration Problems and Ways to Solve Them
4. 4.4 Shock with Long Rods
5. 4.5 Peculiarities of Collision with Thin Targets (Screens)
6. 4.6 Self‐assessment Questions
7. References
5 Numerical Simulation of High‐speed Processes
1. 5.1 Introduction. Basic Concepts
2. 5.2 The System of Equations of Continuum Mechanics
3. 5.3 Behavior of Materials Under Intense Dynamic Loads
4. 5.4 Numerical Methods for Solving Dynamic Problems
5. 5.5 Short Introduction to ANSYS AUTODYN
6. 5.6 Numerical Modeling Example
7. 5.7 Self‐assessment Questions
8. References
Appendix A
1. A.1 Combined Median Errors for Artillery Shooting After Full Preparation of the Source Data
2. A.2 Values of Normalized Laplace Function
3. A.3 Basic Systems of Units and the Relationships Between Them
4. A.4 Properties of High Explosives
5. A.5 Shock Adiabats of Substances
6. References
7. Bibliography
8. Introduction
9. Fragmentation Ammunitions
10. Ammunitions with Shaped Charges
11. High‐explosive Ammunitions
12. Penetrating Ammunitions
13. Numerical Simulation of High‐speed Processes
14. Appendices
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Introduction
1. Table I.1 Degrees of damage of targets.
Chapter 1
1. Table 1.1 Towed guns and mortars.
2. Table 1.2 Mobile guns and mortars.
3. Table 1.3 Characteristics of standard cylinders.
4. Table 1.4 Specifications of typical explosives and masses of charges.
5. Table 1.5 Mechanical characteristics of carbon steels.
6. Table 1.6 Chemical composition of steels, %.
7. Table 1.7 Mechanical properties of steels.
8. Table 1.8 Main characteristics of the spectra and velocity of propagation o...
9. Table 1.9 Example of presentation of the test results.
10. Table 1.10 Values of parameter Φ for bodies of a regular geometrical shape....
11. Table 1.11 Main tactical and technical characteristics of the C‐13 missile ...
12. Table 1.12 Characteristics of target vulnerability to fragmenting effect....
13. Table 1.13 Average critical values of specific impulse i_cr, kPa s.
14. Table 1.14 Steel equivalents of targets, mm.
Chapter 2
1. Table 2.1 Relative depth of penetration T in targets of various materials w...
2. Table 2.2 The parameters of the models used in calculations.
3. Table 2.3 Parameters of the constitutive relations for corundum.
Chapter 3
1. Table 3.1 Construction specifications of Russian high‐explosive projectiles...
2. Table 3.2 Construction specifications of blast mines.
3. Table 3.3 Free‐fall bombs from 1940 to 1950s.
4. Table 3.4 Radiuses of damage zones.
5. Table 3.5 Parameters of shock waves in the air.
6. Table 3.6 Pliability factor values η₀ for some soil types.
7. Table 3.7 Concentration (volumetric %) limits of detonation and ignition of...
8. Table 3.8 Properties of some combustible substances and their mixtures.
9. Table 3.9 Periods of natural oscillations of buildings and structures.
10. Table 3.10 Values of overpressure of SW (Δp_m, кПа), characterizing the degr...
11. Table 3.11 Parameters of the generalized criterion for buildings and indust...
12. Table 3.12 Vulnerability characteristics of elementary ground targets under...
13. Table 3.13 Critical pressure of shockwave damage of a person.
14. Table 3.14 Critical parameters of the generalized criterion of respiratory ...
15. Table 3.15 Human damage from a head impact.
16. Table 3.16 Human damage when struck by various parts of the body.
17. Table 3.17 Parameters of human impact on a rigid surface.
18. Table 3.18 Characteristics of the vulnerability of personnel to the action ...
19. Table 3.19 Values of the k_f – the coefficient for some media.
20. Table 3.20 Constants determining the pressure dependence on the distance in...
21. Table 3.21 Constants determining the dependence of impulse on the distance ...
22. Table 3.22 Constants determining the action time of the compression wave in...
23. Table 3.23 The values of the coefficient K.
24. Table 3.24 Data on crater sizes.
25. Table 3.25 The values of τ_s_.
Chapter 4
1. Table 4.1 Constructive characteristics of sub‐caliber fin‐stabilized projec...
2. Table 4.2 Material properties depending on impact conditions.
3. Table 4.3 Coefficients taking into account the properties of different medi...
Chapter 5
1. Table 5.1 Choice of the equation of state.
2. Table 5.2 Choice of the strength model.
3. Table 5.3 Choice of the failure model.
4. Table 5.4 Ignition and growth parameters for cast Composition B.
Appendix A
1. Table A.1 Combined median errors for artillery shooting after full preparati...
2. Table A.2 Values of the normalized Laplace function at different values of t...
3. Table A.3 Multipliers and prefixes for the formation of decimal multiples a...
4. Table A.4 Relationship of some nonsystem units with SI units.
5. Table A.5 Relationships between units of speed.
6. Table A.6 Relationships between the units of angular velocity.
7. Table A.7 Relationships between units of mass.
8. Table A.8 Relationships between units of force.
9. Table A.9 Relationships between units of pressure.
10. Table A.10 Relationships between units of work and energy.
11. Table A.11 The properties of explosives.
12. Table A.12 Values of the coefficients a and λ for different substances.

List of Illustrations

Introduction
1. Figure I.1 Type of conditional damage low.
2. Figure I.2 Zone of unconditional target damage by the blast action.
3. Figure I.3 Areas surrounding the center of the target.
4. Figure I.4 Area with dimensions of dx·dy, adjacent to a point at the co...
5. Figure I.5 Setting up the coordinate system on the picture plane.
6. Figure I.6 Effect of the group and individual shooting errors.
7. Figure I.7 Projecting of a target on a picture plane.
8. Figure I.8 Coordinates of target boundaries.
9. Figure I.9 Group target.
10. Figure I.10 The mutual position of the target area and its damaged zone.
11. Figure I.11 Mutual position and sizes of the target and the damage zone.
12. Figure I.12 Random area overlapping the damage zone with the target.
13. Figure I.13 Complete coverage of the target area by a damage zone.
14. Figure I.14 The function of the damaged fraction distribution with one shot....
15. Figure I.15 Illustration for creating a distribution law of a portion of the...
16. Figure I.16 Illustration for creating a distribution law of portion of the d...
17. Figure I.17 Creation of the law of distribution of the fraction of damaged a...
18. Figure I.18 Determination of probability obtaining a given fraction of damag...
19. Figure I.19 Illustration to the example: the creation of the law of distribu...
20. Figure I.20 Illustration to the example: function of distribution of the dam...
Chapter 1
1. Figure 1.1 152‐mm fragmentation blast projectile “Grif.”
2. Figure 1.2 152 mm active reactive FBP 3OF22.
3. Figure 1.3 155‐mm full‐ogive shape projectile ERFB: 1 – fuze; 2 – body; 3 – ...
4. Figure 1.4 British anti‐vehicle mine HB‐876: 1 – fragmentation shell with me...
5. Figure 1.5 Russian antipersonnel submunition SHOAB‐0.5: 1 – shell with prefo...
6. Figure 1.6 German hand grenade M‐DN21 (weight 225 g, fragment mass 0.45 g)....
7. Figure 1.7 Continuous rod warhead of an antiaircraft‐guided missile and its ...
8. Figure 1.8 Scheme of fragmentation shell throwing with detonation products....
9. Figure 1.9 Configurations of fragments and fracture surfaces resulting from ...
10. Figure 1.10 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 1 μs since the initiat...
11. Figure 1.11 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 2 μs since the initiat...
12. Figure 1.12 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 3 μs since the initiat...
13. Figure 1.13 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 4 μs since the initiat...
14. Figure 1.14 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 5 μs since the initiat...
15. Figure 1.15 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 6 μs since the initiat...
16. Figure 1.16 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 7.5 μs since the initi...
17. Figure 1.17 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 8 μs since the initiat...
18. Figure 1.18 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 9 μs since the initiat...
19. Figure 1.19 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 11 μs since the initia...
20. Figure 1.20 Configurations of flow fields at time t = 12 μs since the initia...
21. Figure 1.21 Cylindrical shell filled with explosive.
22. Figure 1.22 Schemes of standard cylinders: (a) closed, (b) open.
23. Figure 1.23 Classification diagram of fragmentation quality of standard cyli...
24. Figure 1.24 The angles θ and φ determining the law of fragment dispersion....
25. Figure 1.25 Configurations of fragment fields (warheads of guided missiles u...
26. Figure 1.26 Shield tests: 1 – projectile; 2 – shield; 3 – ricochet shield; 4...
27. Figure 1.27 Scheme of a blast chamber with a catcher.
28. Figure 1.28 Normalized histograms of fragment spectrums.
29. Figure 1.29 Methods of controlled fragmentation of shells into fragments....
30. Figure 1.30 Methods of regular fragmentation of shells.
31. Figure 1.31 Fragments distribution “number by mass” integral law.
32. Figure 1.32 Fragment distribution “number by mass” differential law.
33. Figure 1.33 Types of distribution density at different λ (а); the relative p...
34. Figure 1.34 Angular dispersion zone for a motionless projectile.
35. Figure 1.35 Vector summation of fragment velocity and own projectile velocit...
36. Figure 1.36 Fragment field on the sphere in dynamics.
37. Figure 1.37 Dispersion of fragments after the projectile hits the ground....
38. Figure 1.38 Formation of damaging sectors on the ground.
39. Figure 1.39 Illustration of the problem of concordance dispersion law and th...
40. Figure 1.40 Equivalent cylindrical shell with HE charge.
41. Figure 1.41 The variant of the warhead C‐13 optimization for the light armor...
42. Figure 1.42 Results of heavy fragment action on the armored plate.
43. Figure 1.43 Armored personnel carrier after a C‐13 attack.
44. Figure 1.44 The dependence c_x = f(V) for fragments of spherical shape.
Chapter 2
1. Figure 2.1 Anti‐tank projectiles for smoothbore guns: 1 – GPV‐2 fuse (BK3M) ...
2. Figure 2.2 Anti‐tank mine M21: 1 – explosive charge; 2 – case; 3 – liner; 4 ...
3. Figure 2.3 Structural scheme of an off‐route anti‐tank stationary mine: 1 – ...
4. Figure 2.4 Deployment and action of an off‐route mine: 1 – mine; 2 – rear si...
5. Figure 2.5 ATGM 9M14M of “Malyutka” complex: 1 – ballistic tip; 2 – piezoele...
6. Figure 2.6 The PTAB‐1M anti‐tank submunition and the RBK‐500 aircraft cluste...
7. Figure 2.7 The experiment of G.I. Pokrovsky.
8. Figure 2.8 Hemispherical device “MZ”: 1 – hemispherical charge of HE; 2 – st...
9. Figure 2.9 The experiments with ceramic shells: 1 – plane wave generator; 2 ...
10. Figure 2.10 The action of HE charges on soft steel barrier: monolithic (a), ...
11. Figure 2.11 Impulse X‐ray image of the shaped charge jet formation from a co...
12. Figure 2.12 Penetration ability and scattering value of the jet penetration ...
13. Figure 2.13 The scheme of a collision of two jets of incompressible fluid....
14. Figure 2.14 Scheme of single jet collision with a perfectly smooth surface....
15. Figure 2.15 Scheme of shaped charge jet formation process in incompressible ...
16. Figure 2.16 Scheme of shaped charge jet formation process decomposition.
17. Figure 2.17 Scheme of conical liner collapse process.
18. Figure 2.18 The “reverse” cumulation mode.
19. Figure 2.19 Scheme of the collision process of two compressible fluid jets....
20. Figure 2.20 Scheme of jet formation in compressible fluid.
21. Figure 2.21 Scheme of plate throwing at explosion welding: 1 – fixed plate; ...
22. Figure 2.22 Scheme of the experimental assembly: 1 – electric detonator; 2 –...
23. Figure 2.23 Effects of shaped charge jets on front sides of the witness spec...
24. Figure 2.24 Effects of shaped charge jets on rear sides of the witness speci...
25. Figure 2.25 Initial setup of the simulation: 1, duralumin shell; 2, HE charg...
26. Figure 2.26 Flow fields and pressure contours at the stationary stage at tim...
27. Figure 2.27 Flow fields and pressure contours at time t = 10.25 μs.
28. Figure 2.28 The beginning of the penetration of the jet into the target at t...
29. Figure 2.29 Scheme of a jet element penetration in the coordinate system con...
30. Figure 2.30 Influence of geometrical shape of the lens on the shape of deton...
31. Figure 2.31 Asymmetry of the detonation front.
32. Figure 2.32 Typical frontal irregularities; SC‐streak camera.
33. Figure 2.33 Basic (a, d, f) and combined (b, c, i) mechanisms of compact EFP...
34. Figure 2.34 The process of forming a compact projectile.
35. Figure 2.35 Design scheme of a dynamic protection element (a) and a hinged d...
36. Figure 2.36 Scheme of interaction between a shaped charge jet and an element...
Chapter 3
1. Figure 3.1 High‐explosive projectiles: (a) 203‐mm short‐range projectile F‐6...
2. Figure 3.2 Blast mines of calibers 240 and 160 mm: 1 – body; 2 – explosive c...
3. Figure 3.3 Blast bomb: 1 – fuse; 2 – transition bush; 3 – detonator; 4 – she...
4. Figure 3.4 Blast bombs: 1 – FAB‐100; 2, 3 – FAB‐250; 4 – OFAB‐250; 5–7 – FAB...
5. Figure 3.5 Volumetric explosion ammunition: 1 – fuse; 2 – cylindrical case; ...
6. Figure 3.6 Principal scheme of thermobaric ammunition: 1 – thermobaric mixtu...
7. Figure 3.7 The pressure distribution in explosion products (EP) and the air ...
8. Figure 3.8 Separation of the shock wave from the explosion products.
9. Figure 3.9 Diagram of the explosion process in phase plane (r–t): ASW ...
10. Figure 3.10 Distribution of mass velocities in air and detonation products u...
11. Figure 3.11 Distribution of densities in air and detonation products under d...
12. Figure 3.12 Pressure dependence on time at a fixed point of the area; τ⁺ – t...
13. Figure 3.13 Distribution of pressures in the air at different time moments o...
14. Figure 3.14 Oblique reflection of SW from a barrier.
15. Figure 3.15 Wave pictures of the processes of regular (a) and irregular (b) ...
16. Figure 3.16 Dependence of critical angle of falling α^* on overpressure i...
17. Figure 3.17 Falling angle α₁ and reflection angle α₂_.
18. Figure 3.18 Dependence of reflection angle α₂ on the angle of falling α₁, at...
19. Figure 3.19 Wave pictures of an explosion near a reflective surface at diffe...
20. Figure 3.20 The ratio of the pressures in the reflected SW and falling SW ve...
21. Figure 3.21 Sequential stages of the shock wave flow around the barrier.
22. Figure 3.22 Distribution of pressure (p) and mass velocity (u) in detonation...
23. Figure 3.23 Geometric representation of the criterion for the destruction of...
24. Figure 3.24 Generalization of results on the vulnerability of personnel when...
25. Figure 3.25 Movement of SW and expansion of EP during an explosion in the wa...
26. Figure 3.26 Pressure dependence versus time at a fixed point in an explosion...
27. Figure 3.27 Dependence of gas bubble radius on time: T – period of the first...
28. Figure 3.28 r–t diagram of the initial stage of a spherical charge exp...
29. Figure 3.29 The behavior of the explosive load acting on an object near a re...
30. Figure 3.30 The behavior of explosive load acting on the object near the fre...
31. Figure 3.31 Influence of the free surface on the destructive effect of an un...
32. Figure 3.32 Characteristic zones formed by a charge explosion in boundless s...
33. Figure 3.33 Illustration for the fictitious charge method.
34. Figure 3.34 Crater scheme.
35. Figure 3.35 Resistance forces to the movement of soil particles located: (...
36. Figure 3.36 Seismogram of an explosion.
Chapter 4
1. Figure 4.1 Armor‐piercing caliber projectiles: (a) sharp‐headed projectile; ...
2. Figure 4.2 Armor‐piercing sub‐caliber projectiles: (a) 57‐mm spool‐shaped; (...
3. Figure 4.3 Sub‐caliber projectile with discardable sabot: 1 – ballistic tip;...
4. Figure 4.4 Armor‐piercing sub‐caliber projectiles without cores (Figure 4.4a...
5. Figure 4.5 Concrete‐piercing projectiles: (a) 152‐mm projectile; (b) 203‐mm ...
6. Figure 4.6 Samples of bullets for rifle and automatic rifle cartridges. Rifl...
7. Figure 4.7 Examples of types of impactors: (a) armor‐piercing projectile; (b...
8. Figure 4.8 Types of target destruction: (a) brittle fracture; (b) fracture w...
9. Figure 4.9 Phase diagram characterizing the collision of the impactor with t...
10. Figure 4.10 Scheme of the mechanism of plug formation.
11. Figure 4.11 Ballistic limit determination by (a) statistical measurements an...
12. Figure 4.12 Photographs of crater cross‐sections illustrating the change in ...
13. Figure 4.13 Dependence of crater depth on impact velocity in the case of ste...
14. Figure 4.14 Dependencies of the crater depth on the impact velocity: steel b...
15. Figure 4.15 Characteristics of the shape of craters. The notations are the s...
16. Figure 4.16 High‐velocity penetration of projectile into the target (a–c); p...
17. Figure 4.17 Predictions of the Alekseevskii‐Tate eroding rod model; both vel...
18. Figure 4.18 Dependence of the relative deformation of the impactor on the sp...
19. Figure 4.19 (a) Segmented rod with segments adjacent to each other during la...
20. Figure 4.20 (a, b) Scheme of the interaction of the impactor with the thin s...
21. Figure 4.21 The X‐ray image of the interaction of a compact cylindrical impa...
22. Figure 4.22 The X‐ray image of a barrier piercing with a rod.
Chapter 5
1. Figure 5.1 Experimental assembly scheme: 1 – electric detonator; 2 – active ...
2. Figure 5.2 A typical surface of a steel identification specimen with a hole ...
3. Figure 5.3 Initial posting with dimensions of 13.0 cm × 4.0 cm. The bottom b...
4. Figure 5.4 Material flow fields and pressure contours at different times wit...
5. Figure 5.5 Pressure profile on the symmetry axis of active HE charge at the ...
6. Figure 5.6 Graph of the axial stress in the silicon carbide insert versus ax...
7. Figure 5.7 Pressure graph in the passive HE charge versus axial distance at
Appendix A
1. Figure A.1 Hugoniot shock adiabat.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Balagansky, I. A. (Igor Andreevich), 1952– author.
Title: Damaging effects of weapons and ammunition / Igor A. Balagansky.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022001002 (print) | LCCN 2022001003 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119779537 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119779544 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119779551 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Ammunition--Evaluation. | Explosives, Military--Evaluation. | Ballistics.
Classification: LCC UF700 .B35 2022 (print) | LCC UF700 (ebook) | DDC 623.4–dc23/eng/20220214
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022001002
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022001003