This edition first published 2019
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Practical Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry, First Edition, Wiley 2005.
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ISBN: 9781119478683
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This book is dedicated to my wife, Lynne and our two now grown-up children, Sam and Naomi, and our newest family member, Harris, the border terrier.
Each of you is pursuing your own goals and ambitions.
John R. Dean DSc, PhD, DIC, MSc, BSc, FRSC, CChem, CSci, PFHEA
Since 2004, John R. Dean has been Professor of Analytical and Environmental Sciences at Northumbria University where he is also currently Head of Subject in Analytical Sciences, which covers all Chemistry and Forensic Science Programmes. His research is both diverse and informed, covering such topics as the development of novel methods to investigate the influence and risk of metals and persistent organic compounds in environmental and biological matrices, to development of new chromatographic methods for environmental and biological samples using gas chromatography and ion mobility spectrometry and development of novel approaches for pathogenic bacterial detection/identification. Much of the work is directly supported by industry and other external sponsors.
He has published extensively (over 200 papers, book chapters and books) in analytical and environmental science. He has also supervised over 30 PhD students.
John remains an active member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) and serves on several of its committee's including Analytical Division Council, Committee for Accreditation and Validation of Chemistry Degrees, Research Mobility Grant committee and is the International Coordinator for the Schools' Analyst Competition.
After a first degree in Chemistry at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), this was followed by an MSc in Analytical Chemistry and Instrumentation at Loughborough University of Technology, and finally a PhD and DIC in Physical Chemistry at the Imperial College of Science and Technology (University of London). He then spent two years as a postdoctoral research fellow at the Government Food Laboratory in Norwich. In 1988, he was appointed to a lectureship in Inorganic/Analytical Chemistry at Newcastle Polytechnic (now Northumbria University) where he has remained ever since.
In his spare time John is an active canoeist; he holds performance (UKCC level 3) coach awards in open canoe and white water kayak. In 2012, he was awarded an ‘outstanding contribution’ award by the British Canoe Union.
The technique of inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry has expanded and diversified in the form of a mini‐revolution over the past 55 years. What was essentially an optical emission spectroscopic technique for trace element analysis has expanded into a source for both atomic emission spectrometry and mass spectrometry, capable of detecting elements at sub‐ppb (ng ml−1) levels with good accuracy and precision. Modern instruments have also shrunk in physical size, but expanded in terms of their analytical capabilities, reflecting the significant developments in both optical and semiconductor technology. Each of the nine chapters takes a particular aspect of the holistic field of ICP and outlines the key practical aspects.
In Chapter 1, information is outlined with regard to the general methodology for trace elemental analysis. This includes specific guidance on the potential contamination problems that can arise in trace elemental analysis, the basics of health and safety in the field and workplace and the practical aspects of recording a risk assessment. The focus of the chapter then moves to the numerical aspects of the topic with sections on units and appropriate assignment of the number of significant figures. Quantitative analysis requires an understanding and application of calibration graph plotting and interpretation. Numerical exercises involving the calculation of dilution factors and their use in determining original concentrations in aqueous and solid samples are provided as worked examples. Finally, the concept of quality assurance is introduced, together with the role of certified reference materials in trace element analysis.
Chapter 2 focuses on the specific area of sampling, sample storage and preservation techniques. Initially, however, the generic concepts of effective sampling are highlighted and contextualized. This is then followed by specific details on the sampling of soil, water and air. The major factors affecting sample storage are then addressed as well as practical remedies for the storage of sample. Finally, the possibilities for sample preservation are highlighted.
Chapter 3 considers the diverse of sample preparation strategies that have been adopted to introduce samples in to an ICP. These include the sample preparation approaches for the elemental analysis of metals/metalloids from solid and aqueous samples. The first part of this chapter is concerned with methods for the extraction of metal ions from aqueous samples. Emphasis is placed on liquid–liquid extraction, with reference to both ion‐exchange and co‐precipitation. The second part of this chapter is focused on the methods available for converting a solid sample into the appropriate form for elemental analysis. The most popular methods are based on acid digestion of the solid matrix, using either a microwave oven or a hot‐plate approach. In addition, details are provided about the methods available for the selective extraction of metal species in soil studies using either single extraction, sequential extraction procedures or non‐specific extraction. Finally, the role of in vitro simulated gastro intestinal and epithelial lung extraction procedures for estimated bioaccessibility are described.
Chapter 4 explores the different approaches available for the introduction of samples into an ICP. While the most common approach uses the generic nebulizer/spray chamber arrangement, the choice of which nebulizer and/or spray chamber requires an understanding of the principle of operation and the benefits of each design. Alternative approaches for discrete sample introduction are also discussed, including laser ablation while continuous sample introduction methods consider the coupling of flow injection and chromatography. Finally, opportunities for introducing gaseous forms of metals/metalloids using hydride generation and/or cold vapour techniques are discussed.
Chapter 5 describes the principle of operation of an ICP and the role of the radio frequency generator. The concept of viewing position is also introduced where it is of importance in atomic emission spectrometry where the plasma can be viewed either laterally or axially. In addition, the basic processes that occur within an ICP when a sample is introduced are discussed. Finally, a brief outline of the necessary signal processing and instrument control required for a modern instrument are presented.
Chapter 6 concentrates on the fundamental and practical aspects of inductively coupled plasma‐atomic emission spectrometry (ICP–AES). After an initial discussion of the fundamentals of spectroscopy as related to atomic emission spectrometry, this chapter then focuses on the practical aspects of spectrometer design and detection. The ability to measure elemental information sequentially or simultaneously is discussed in terms of spectrometer design. Advances in detector technology, in terms of charge‐transfer technology, are also highlighted in the context of ICP–AES.
Chapter 7 describes the fundamental and practical aspects of inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP–MS). After an initial discussion of the fundamentals of mass spectrometry, this chapter then focuses on the types of mass spectrometer and variety of detectors available for ICP–MS. The occurrence of isobaric and molecular interferences in ICP–MS is highlighted, along with suggested remedies. Of particular note is a discussion of collision and reaction cells in ICP–MS. Emphasis is also placed on the capability of ICP–MS to perform quantitative analysis using isotope dilution analysis (IDA).
Chapter 8 focuses on the current and future developments in ICP technology. After an initial comparison of ICP–AES and ICP–MS, the chapter considers the diversity of applications to which the technology has been applied. Finally, examples have been selected that highlight current and future developments for the ICP, in ICP–AES and ICP–MS. Some useful laboratory templates are also provided. This chapter concludes with guidance on the range of resources available to assist in the understanding of ICP technology and its application to trace element analysis.
Finally, Chapter 9 provides practical guidance on troubleshooting problems commonly encountered in the running of an ICP system. The chapter concludes by providing guidance on the maintenance schedule for maintaining an efficient and functioning ICP system.
John R. Dean
Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK
This present text includes material that has previously appeared in several of the author’s earlier books; that is, Atomic Absorption and Plasma Spectroscopy (ACOL Series, 1997), Methods for Environmental Trace Analysis (AnTS Series, 2003), Practical Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy (AnTS Series, 2005), Bioavailability, Bioaccessibility and Mobility of Environmental Contaminants (AnTS, 2007), Extraction Techniques in Analytical Sciences (AnTS, 2009) and Environmental Trace Analysis: Techniques and Applications (2014), all published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK. The author is grateful to the copyright holders for granting permission to reproduce figures and tables from his two earlier publications.
In addition, the following are acknowledged.
Table 1.1 An example Control of Substances Hazardous to Health form. Reprinted with permission of Dr Graeme Turnbull, Northumbria University.
Figure 2.3 An illustration of a spring‐loaded water sampling device. Reprinted with permission of Dynamic Aqua‐Supply Ltd, Canada.http://www.dynamicaqua.com/watersamplers.html
Figure 2.6 A schematic diagram of a high‐volume sampler for collection of total suspended particulates. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 4.0 License. © CC BY 4.0 AU, Queensland Government, Australia.
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air‐pollution/samplers
Figure 3.11 Schematic layout of the human lungs system. Reproduced with permission of Humanbodyanatomy.co.
https://humanbodyanatomy.co/human‐lungs‐diagram/human‐lungs‐diagram‐pictures‐human‐lungs‐diagram‐labeled‐human‐anatomy‐diagram/
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram for an autosampler sample presentation unit for ICP technology. Reproduced with permission of Elemental Scientific, Nebraska, USA.
http://www.icpms.com/products/brinefast‐S4.php
Figure 4.2 Selected common commercially available nebulizers. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution‐ShareAlike 4.0 License. © CC BY‐SA 4.0, Burgener Research Inc.
Figure 4.10 A schematic diagram of a pneumatic concentric nebulizer – cyclonic spray chamber arrangement. Reproduced with permission of ThermoFisher.com.https://www.thermofisher.com/de/en/home/industrial/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis‐learning‐center/trace‐elemental‐analysis‐tea‐information/inductively‐coupled‐plasma‐mass‐spectrometry‐icp‐ms‐information/icp‐ms‐sample‐preparation.html
Figure 4.14 Schematic diagram of a laser ablation (LA) – ICP system. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier. Gunther, D., Hattendorf, B., Trends in Analytical Chemistry 24(3), (2015) 255–265.
Figure 4.17 A Schematic diagram of an HPLC ‐ ICP system. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier. Delafiori, J., Ring, G., and Furey, A., Talanta 153, (2016) 306–331.
Figure 6.14 Schematic representation of the operation of a photomultiplier tube. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester. Hou, X. and Jones, B.T., Inductively coupled plasma / optical emission spectrometry. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, Meyers, R.A. (Ed.), pp. 9468–9485.
Figure 6.16 Schematic representation of the operation of a charged‐coupled device. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester. Hou, X. and Jones, B.T., Inductively coupled plasma / optical emission spectrometry. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, Meyers, R.A. (Ed.), pp. 9468–9485.
Figure 7.4 Modeling the inductively coupled plasma temperature at the ICP‐MS interface [5]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bogaerts, A., Aghaei, M., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 233–261 (2017).
Figure 7.8 Schematic diagrams of the layout of high‐resolution mass spectrometers for inductively coupled plasma (a) high resolution ICP‐MS (HR‐ICP‐MS), sector field ICP‐MS (SF‐ICP‐MS) or double‐focusing ICP‐MS (DF‐ICP‐MS) (e.g. a reverse geometry double‐focusing magnetic sector MS), (b) ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ), and (c) multiple collector ICP‐MS (MC‐ICP‐MS).
(a) Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Moldovan, M., Krupp, E.M., Holliday, A.E., Donard, O.F.X., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 19, 815–822 (2004).
(b) Reproduced with permission of the RSC.
(c) Reproduced with permission of the Journal of Geostandards and Geoanalysis. Rehkamper, M., Schonbachler, M., and Stirling, C., Geostandards Newsletter, 25(1), 23–40 (2000).
Figure 7.10 Schematic representation of (a) ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ) and (b) its operating modes [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.11 Schematic representation of the operating principles for the different scanning options available for a ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ). (a) Product ion scan, (b) precursor ion scan, and (c) neutral mass gain scan [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.12 Schematic representation of the principle of overcoming spectral interferences for a ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ). (a) On‐mass approach, (b) mass‐shift approach (1), and (c) mass‐shift approach (2) [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.13 An example of the principle of overcoming spectral interferences for a ICP‐tandem mass spectrometer (triple quadrupole ICP‐MS or ICP‐QQQ) for the spectral free determination of 80Se operated in MS/MS mode using both the (a) on‐mass approach, and (b) mass‐shift approach [11]. Reproduced with permission of the RSC. Bolea‐Fernandez, E., Balcaen, L., Resano, M., and Vanhaecke, F., J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom., 32, 1660–1679 (2017).
Figure 7.17 Detectors for mass spectrometry: (a) a discrete dynode electron multiplier tube (EMT): mode of operation, (b) a continuous dynode (or channel) EMT: mode of operation, and (c) Faraday cup detector: mode of its operation. (c) Reproduced with permission from ThermoFisher Scientfic. https://www.thermofisher.com/uk/en/home/industrial/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis/spectroscopy‐elemental‐isotope‐analysis‐learning‐center/trace‐elemental‐analysis‐tea‐information/inductively‐coupled‐plasma‐mass‐spectrometry‐icp‐ms‐information/icp‐ms‐systems‐technologies.html .
Figure 8.1 Photochemical vapour generation for ICP [1]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Sturgeon, R.E., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 2319–2340 (2017).
Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram of a (a) Flow Blurring® nebulizer and (b) its mode of operation. Reproduced with permission of Agilent com. https://www.agilent.com/en/products/mp‐aes/mp‐aes‐supplies/mp‐aes‐oneneb‐series‐2‐nebulizer .
Figure 8.3 Electrothermal vaporization (ETV) sample introduction device for an ICP [5]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Hassler, J., Barth, P., Richter, S. and Matschat, R., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 26, 2404–2418 (2011).
Figure 8.6 Schematic diagram of a commercial ICP‐ToF‐MS [6]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Hendriks, L., Gundlach‐Graham, A., Hattendorf, B. and Gunther, D., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 548–561 (2017).
Figure 8.7 Synchronous vertical dual‐view of a commercial ICP‐AES [7]. Reproduced with permission of RSC. Donati, G.L., Amais, R.S. and Williams, C.B., J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 32, 1283–1296 (2017).