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ISBN: 9781118910511

Cover design: Wiley

Cover images: (left) © Jag_cz/ Shutterstock; (right) © Andrey Armyagov/ Shutterstock

CONTENTS

Cover

Preface

Acknowledgments

List of Contributors

In Memoriam

1 Introduction to E³ Models and Techniques in Aerospace Systems

1.1 Introduction and Topics of Interest
1.2 Autonomous Systems
1.3 Coupled Air and Space Survivable Systems
1.4 EMC Considerations of Chaos
1.5 EMC Effects on and Technology for Aerospace Systems
References

2 Deterministic and Statistical EMC Models for Field-to-Wire Coupling and Crosstalk in Wire Harness

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Deterministic Modeling
2.3 Statistical Modeling
References

3 HEMP Protection and Verification

3.1 Introduction
3.2 High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse
3.3 HEMP Coupling to Aircraft
3.4 Shielding and Shielding Topology
3.5 EM Protection Technology
3.6 System-Level Specifications and Measurements
3.7 Hardening Component Specifications and Measurements
3.8 Hardness Maintenance/Hardness Surveillance
3.9 Conclusion
References

4 HIRF and Lightning Effects and Testing

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Coupling Analysis
4.3 HIRF Electromagnetic Environment and Its Effects
4.4 Electromagnetic Effects of Lightning
4.5 Precipitation Static (P-Static)
4.6 Lightning Effects and Protection in Aerospace
References

5 Techniques to Design Robust Lightning Protection Circuits for Avionics Equipment

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Clean Sheet Design
5.3 Evaluating and Hardening Existing Protection
5.4 Design Examples
5.5 Conclusion
References

6 Pyrotechnic Systems in Aerospace Applications

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Component-Level Concerns
6.3 Vehicle-Level Concerns
6.4 Conclusion
References

7 Assembly-Level EMC Testing of Space Components/Subsystems

7.1 Preliminary Steps
7.2 Basic Testing Concepts
7.3 Commonly Performed Tests
7.4 Test Plan
7.5 Testing Sequence
References

8 System-Level Testing of Spacecraft

8.1 Classification of System-Level Testing
8.2 System-Level Requirements Definition
8.3 Test Execution at the System Level
References

9 Subsystem EMC for Aircraft

9.1 Introduction: The Aim of Subsystem-Level Testing
9.2 Motivations for Testing: Safety of Flight and Success of Mission
9.3 Emissions Tests
9.4 Immunity Tests
9.5 Test Plans for Avionics Subsystems
Further Reading

10 EMI Effects in Flight Control Systems and Their Mitigations

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nature of EMI Experienced by Aerospace Vehicles
10.3 Reported Catastrophic EMI Occurrences in FCS
10.4 Anatomy of FBW FCS
10.5 Flight Management System
10.6 EMC Test Standards
10.7 EMC Test Methodologies of FCS
10.8 How EMI Couples to FCS
10.9 Modeling and Simulation
10.10 FCS of UAVs
10.11 Some Special Considerations for EMI Mitigation
References

11 EMC Considerations for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Small UAVs
11.3 Payloads
11.4 Small UAV Navigation and Control Systems
11.5 Electromagnetic Environment for Small UAVs

12 DC Magnetic Cleanliness Description for Spaceflight Programs

12.1 Magnetic Cleanliness Introduction
12.2 Magnetic Cleanliness and Control Philosophy
12.3 Magnetics Cleanliness Program Description
12.4 Early Magnetic Cleanliness Involvement
12.5 Design Requirements and Practices
12.6 Magnetic Assessment and Control
12.7 Magnetic Control Design Practices
12.8 Test Facilities Measurement and Methods
12.9 Analytical Determination of Magnetic Fields

13 Spacecraft Charging

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Historical Background
13.3 General Description of the Near-Earth Electromagnetic Environment
13.4 Introduction to Spacecraft Charging
13.5 Types of Spacecraft Charging
13.6 Potential Damage
13.7 Ways and Means of Protection/Mitigation
13.8 Concluding Material
References
Bibliography

14 Analysis and Simulations of Space Radiation-Induced Single-Event Effects and Transients

14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Space Radiation Environment
14.3 Single-Event Effects
14.4 Single-Event Transient
14.5 Generation and Modeling a SET
14.6 Use of Upset Rates for Analyzing Vulnerabilities of Designs to SEE
14.7 Circuit Modeling of SETs
14.8 SETs in Digital Devices
14.9 SET-Induced Clock Jitter and False Clock Pulse
14.10 Designing Digital Circuits for SET Survivability
14.11 Crosstalk Noise from SET Events and Delay Effects
14.12 SET in Voltage Regulators
14.13 SET Propagation through Multiple Circuits
14.14 SET Hardening of Interconnects
14.15 Modeling Subsystem- and System-Level Effects from SET
14.16 Analyses and Protection for SET for Electronic Devices
14.17 SEE Testing of Spacecraft Hardware Electronics
14.18 Conclusions
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Models of the autonomous system.
Figure 1.2 Illustration of land/airborne communication system.
Figure 1.3 Example of electronic threat on the electronic system.
Figure 1.4 Perception, decision-making, and execution functions of autonomous systems [4].
Figure 1.5 Illustrative model of a near-term autonomous system.
Figure 1.6 Concepts for ideal Autonomous System (AS).
Figure 1.7 Hypothetical cost as a function of gamma.
Figure 1.8 Model for automatic system.
Figure 1.9 Model for autonomous system.
Figure 1.10 Deterministic feedback control model.
Figure 1.11 Perceptions for mission success and avoiding unwanted consequences [4].
Figure 1.12 Basic links between satellite and ground station.
Figure 1.13 Sample of ground stations.
Figure 1.14 Networking between satellite, ground, and airborne systems.
Figure 1.15 Functions of ACN.
Figure 1.16 Paul Revere test bed.
Figure 1.18 Possible communication requirements for ACNs.
Figure 1.19 Network in absence and under attack.
Figure 1.20 Open-loop buck dc/dc controller.
Figure 1.21 Buck converter with proportional closed-loop controller.
Figure 1.22 Onset of chaotic waveform.
Figure 1.23 Sample phase space dynamics of Lorenz system.
Figure 1.24 Sample of chaotic time series of Lorenz system.
Figure 1.25 System under IEMI attack.
Figure 1.26 Cobweb diagram.
Figure 1.27 Closed-loop SISO model.
Figure 1.28 EMI Diagnosis within an autonomous system.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Infinitesimal line section of an MTL composed by (n + 1) conductors.
Figure 2.2 Circuit interpretation of the coupling between an external EM field and a two-co...
Figure 2.3 Single-ended interconnection above ground illuminated by a plane-wave field,...
Figure 2.4 Equivalent circuit at line ends of a two-conductor TL driven by an external EM...
Figure 2.5 (a) Geometrical representation of the TWP bifilar helix above ground; (b)...
Figure 2.6 (a) CM and DM currents induced at the left TWP termination: Prediction obtained...
Figure 2.7 Influence of imbalance affecting the terminal networks on CM and DM voltages...
Figure 2.8 Modeling TWP-to-wire crosstalk coupling by cascade-connecting uniform TL section...
Figure 2.9 (a) Example of cross-section of a multipair bundles above ground (in this...
Figure 2.11 Examples of complex cable harness reduction into equivalent cross-sections for...
Figure 2.12 Monte Carlo approach to statistical analysis.
Figure 2.13 (a) Three-conductor TL for crosstalk analysis and (b) reference cross-section...
Figure 2.15 The RDSI algorithm: (a) modeling approach and (b) three-dimensional...
Figure 2.16 NEXT in a random bundle with lacing cords. Each solid line refers to a different...
Figure 2.17 Pdf of the current induced by a random plane wave in the right terminal resistor...
Figure 2.18 Statistical estimates of the current induced in the terminal load of a TL...
Figure 2.19 Normalized histogram (1000 repeated runs) and analytical pdf (solid lines) of...
Figure 2.20 (a) Six possible cycles in a reference cross-section composed of six wires. (b)...
Figure 2.21 AGILE satellite mock-up and test setup.
Figure 2.22 Colored lines: measured CM terminal voltages for each TWPs in several random...
Figure 2.23 (a) 80-cm-long commercial flex cable (“0.050” High Flex Life Cable, 28 AWG...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Starfish Prime as seen from Maui.
Figure 3.3 Effective range of a high-altitude EMP as a function of burst height.
Figure 3.4 HEMP waveform and frequency spectrum from MIL-STD-464C.
Figure 3.5 Aircraft EM coupling configurations.
Figure 3.6 Three ways of distributing HEMP shielding protection.
Figure 3.7 Integrated electromagnetic environment effects program illustrated.
Figure 3.8 Design margin illustrated.
Figure 3.9 HEMP verification test approach for aircraft.
Figure 3.10 The horizontally polarized HEMP simulator at Patuxent River, MD.
Figure 3.11 Vertically polarized HEMP simulator.
Figure 3.12 Fields away from the centerline of the antenna at oblique incidence.
Figure 3.13 Incident and reflected fields in the Ellipticus CW illuminator, vertically...
Figure 3.14 Ellipticus CW illuminator.
Figure 3.15 Ellipticus simulator in the vertical mode.
Figure 3.16 Magnetic field in center of working volume at h = 3 m, horizontal polarization...
Figure 3.17 Magnetic field on the ground in center of the working volume at h = 0 m, horizon...
Figure 3.19 Vertical electric field in center of working volume at height h = 3 m. Vertical ...
Figure 3.20 Clear time for a scattered signal.
Figure 3.24 Typical cable direct drive configuration.
Figure 3.25 Example of a damped sine waveform.
Figure 3.26 Snap-on current probes.
Figure 3.27 Clip-on current probe.
Figure 3.28 Voltage pickoff probe.
Figure 3.29 van Lint voltage probe.
Figure 3.30 Typical break-out box.
Figure 3.31 Magnetic field sensors.
Figure 3.32 ACD electric field sensors.
Figure 3.33 7-to-1 coaxial switch driving a single fiber-optic link.
Figure 3.34 Example transfer impedance measurement of an RF gasket on an aircraft door.
Figure 3.35 Aperture penetration illustrated.
Figure 3.36 Aperture tester showing the transmission line driver and the voltage probe.
Figure 3.37 Screened aperture equivalent circuit.
Figure 3.38 Measuring the transfer impedance of an over-wing hatch with the Aperture....
Figure 3.39 Measured transfer impedance of a screened aperture.
Figure 3.40 Z_T measurement of a 4′ × 6′ aircraft passenger door with RF gaskets.
Figure 3.41 Z_T measurement of a 9″ × 12″ screened aircraft window.
Figure 3.42 Loop resistance tester.
Figure 3.44 Z_T measurements of cable shields showing characteristic signatures of common...
Figure 3.45 The SPEHS test concept.
Figure 3.46 Using SPEHS to measure the SE of a hardened over-wing escape hatch.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 The concept and limitations of perfect shield. (a) perfectly conducting shield...
Figure 4.2 Coupling process.
Figure 4.3 Aircraft coupling chain.
Figure 4.4 Problem geometry.
Figure 4.5 Skin depth for different materials.
Figure 4.6 Normalized dependence of transfer impedance on relative skin depth.
Figure 4.7 Multilayered cylinder.
Figure 4.8 Model geometry.
Figure 4.9 Sphere in external magnetic field.
Figure 4.10 Frequency variation of the sphere field-enhancement/ attenuation coefficients.
Figure 4.11 Cylindrical tube in a uniform external longitudinal magnetic field.
Figure 4.12 Cylindrical tube in a uniform external transversal magnetic field.
Figure 4.13 The cylinder field-enhancement / attenuation coefficients for transversal...
Figure 4.14 Temporal diffusion of transversal magnetic field into cylindrical tube.
Figure 4.15 Analogous circuit for magnetic field penetration.
Figure 4.16 Variation of external and internal H-field strengths with frequency.
Figure 4.17 Elliptical shell.
Figure 4.18 Temporal diffusion of magnetic field into elliptic tube.
Figure 4.19 Magnetic field penetration through aperture and equivalent problems (a) problem...
Figure 4.20 Electric field penetration through aperture and equivalent problems (a) problem...
Figure 4.21 Electric and magnetic field components around dipoles (a) electric dipole, and...
Figure 4.22 Modes of resonance for cylinders.
Figure 4.23 The frequency response curve of a resonant cavity (a) influence of the quality...
Figure 4.24 Geometry of rectangular cavity.
Figure 4.25 Circular cylindrical hollow cavity.
Figure 4.26 Field patterns in cylindrical cavity resonators (a) node pattern for the TE₁₁₁...
Figure 4.27 Thin wire model of aircraft structures (a) a parallel-filaments model of a wing;...
Figure 4.28 Thin wire model of an aluminum wing with a composite leading edge.
Figure 4.29 Thin wire model of an aluminum wing with a composite leading edge.
Figure 4.30 Aperture penetration and interaction with an interior wire (a) physical...
Figure 4.31 Finite line with excitation at the beginning.
Figure 4.34 Finite Line with excitation at arbitrary point along the line (a) problem...
Figure 4.35 Model for the electric coupling.
Figure 4.36 Model for the magnetic coupling (a) open loop; (b) loop short-circuited.
Figure 4.37 Excitation of a conductor over a ground plane by external EM field.
Figure 4.38 Illumination of the line by a uniform plane wave.
Figure 4.39 Load responses for End-Fire incidence; a = 1 mm; h = 5 cm; l = 10 m; E_z = 1 V/m....
Figure 4.40 Load responses for Broadside Incidence; a = 1 mm; h = 5 cm; l = 10 m; E_z = 1 V/m...
Figure 4.41 Load responses for Edge-fire incidence; a = 1 mm; h = 5 cm; l = 10 m; E_z = 1 V/m...
Figure 4.42 Effect of shield around a circuit wire on inductive coupling.
Figure 4.43 Outline for measurement of LF shield parameters (a) transfer impedance; (b)...
Figure 4.44 Illustration of unwrapped braided shield.
Figure 4.45 Example of frequency variation of the transfer impedance.
Figure 4.46 Coupled per-unit-length equivalent circuit for evaluation of internal responses ...
Figure 4.47 Finite shielded line with excitation at the beginning of the shield-to-ground...
Figure 4.48 Coupled per-unit-length equivalent circuit for evaluation of internal responses ...
Figure 4.49 Simplified model of the voltage gradient generation along the inner surface...
Figure 4.50 Definition of parameters for different amplitude modulation patterns (a)...
Figure 4.51 Pulse-modulated signal.
Figure 4.52 Simulated surface current distribution on a helicopter at 10 MHz.
Figure 4.53 Test set-up for LLSC measurements (a) field calibration; (b) measurement.
Figure 4.54 Antenna positioning for LLSC measurements.
Figure 4.56 A small aircraft placed in the multiple-wire antenna.
Figure 4.57 Outline of LLDD test set-up.
Figure 4.58 Arrangement of return conductors for LLDD test (a) coaxial arrangement, (b)...
Figure 4.60 Test set-up for LLSF measurements.
Figure 4.61 An example of Antenna positioning for LLSF measurements above 400 MHz.
Figure 4.62 Electric field attenuation in the frequency range 20 MHz–18 GHz measured in the ...
Figure 4.63 Generic transfer function normalized to 1 V/m [4].
Figure 4.64 Cable bundle current obtained by application of generic TF for small aeroplane...
Figure 4.65 Example of the test arrangement for BCI testing.
Figure 4.66 Example of a test set-up for RS testing in (semi)anechoic chamber.
Figure 4.67 Example of a test set-up for RS testing in reverberation chamber.
Figure 4.68 Charge distribution in thundercloud.
Figure 4.69 Types of lightning discharges.
Figure 4.70 Development of lightning discharge.
Figure 4.71 Development of an aircraft-intercepted lightning strike.
Figure 4.73 Pictorial representation of possible current components in an aircraft lightning...
Figure 4.74 Outline of channel elongation and restrike process.
Figure 4.75 Channel swept along the aircraft surface.
Figure 4.76 Example of lightning strike zoning for a small single-engine aeroplane.
Figure 4.77 Voltage test waveforms.
Figure 4.78 Lightning current waveform approximated by a unipolar aperiodic pulse.
Figure 4.79 Multiple stroke pulse pattern.
Figure 4.80 Multiple burst pulse pattern (a) one burst of 20 pulses; (b) one multiple burst ...
Figure 4.81 Frequency spectrum of lightning current component A.
Figure 4.82 Frequency spectra of the lightning current components relevant to IEL.
Figure 4.83 Lightning Current Components for direct effect evaluation.
Figure 4.84 Outline of aperture coupling.
Figure 4.85 Time variation of waveforms 1 and 2.
Figure 4.86 Idealized waveform simulating resonances.
Figure 4.87 Outline of resistive coupling.
Figure 4.88 Waveforms 4 and 5 simulating resistive coupling / diffusion and redistribution.
Figure 4.89 Magnetic field diffusing through an aperture with a resistive cover.
Figure 4.90 Several examples of possible airframe lightning current paths, all other...
Figure 4.91 Schematic representation of measurement types (a) the wire open-circuit voltage,...
Figure 4.92 Signal definitions for determination of transfer function.
Figure 4.93 Assignment of Standard Waveforms to Measured Transients.
Figure 4.94 Example for Establishing Transient Levels of Standard Waveforms (a) full wave,...
Figure 4.95 Pin injection test arrangement (a) direct injection, (b) calibration setup, (c) ...
Figure 4.96 Test set-up for cable induction test.
Figure 4.97 Test set-up for ground injection test.
Figure 4.98 Aircraft charging processes (a) triboelectric charging; (b) engine exhaust...
Figure 4.99 Oblate (a) and prolate (b) spheroids.
Figure 4.100 Example of placement of static dischargers according to [79].
Figure 4.101 Example of static discharger design.
Figure 4.102 Dependence of the cylinder capacitance on the height above ground.
Figure 4.103 Enhancement of electric field at extremities of a rocket extended by plumes.
Figure 4.104 Spacecraft lightning protection using the umbilical tower (a) protection by...
Figure 4.105 Outline of striking distance concept.
Figure 4.106 Sketch of Rolling Sphere Method application.
Figure 4.107 Lightning protection by multiple protective towers (a) lightning rods and...
Figure 4.108 Equivalent circuit of the lightning protection system.
Figure 4.109 Simplified model of a loop between the downconductors.
Figure 4.110 Geometry for evaluation of coupling between the loop and a conductor.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 WF4 from Section 22 of [1].
Figure 5.2 WF5A from Section 22 of [1].
Figure 5.3 WF3 from Section 22 of [1].
Figure 5.4 Basic protection circuit.
Figure 5.5 Lightning protection circuit design tool GUI [14, 15].
Figure 5.6 MATLAB screen showing working directory.
Figure 5.7 Wunsch–Bell curve from KOA SPEER SG73 resistor family [9].
Figure 5.8 Plot of example coordinates.
Figure 5.9 Size comparison of traditional and new MOVs with similar performance...
Figure 5.10 TVS Wunsch–Bell curve taken from reference [8].
Figure 5.11 Plot of the example coordinates.
Figure 5.12 Design tool output for GDT.
Figure 5.13 Tool that may be used to perform the first step of the evaluation.
Figure 5.14 PSPICE simulation of the WF5A transient.
Figure 5.15 PSPICE simulation of the WF4 transient.
Figure 5.16 PSPICE simulation of the WF3 transient.
Figure 5.17 Results for the design parameters of the first stage of the example design.
Figure 6.2 Common mode firing scenario of a typical two-wire system. Source: [9, Figure 12]...
Figure 6.3 Thermal stacking effect. Source: [14, Figure 3-1].
Figure 6.4 Shorting plug with Faraday shielding. Source: [14, Figure 4-7].
Figure 6.5 Firing system basic architecture. Source: [14, Figure 4-1].
Figure 6.6 Ideal shielding situation. (Source: [14, Figure 1-2].
Figure 6.7 Shielding situation with interconnects. Source: [14, Figure 1-3].
Figure 6.8 Shield termination using crimping. Source: [14, Figure 5-15].
Figure 6.9 Shield termination using a threaded assembly. Source: [14, Figure 5-16].
Figure 6.10 Coupling as a function of termination length of shield. Source: [14, Figure 7-6]...
Figure 6.11 Flat cover plates with gaskets. Source: [14, Figure 5-25].
Figure 6.12 Angled cover plates with gaskets. Source: [14, Figure 5-26].
Figure 6.13 Shielding effectiveness provided by different twisting and shielding...
Figure 6.14 Bonding a connector. Source: [14, Figure 6-4].
Figure 6.15 Optical thermocouple instrumentation of a hot bridgewire EIED. Source: [9,...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 LISN schematic. Source: [1, p. 22].
Figure 7.2 LISN impedance. Source: [1, p. 23].
Figure 7.3 CE102 limit (EUT power leads, AC and DC) for all applications. Source: [1, p 37]...
Figure 7.4 Measurement setup. Source: [1, p. 39].
Figure 7.5 CS101 voltage limit for all applications. Source: [1, p. 50].
Figure 7.6 CS101 power amplifier protection. Source: [1, Appendix A, p. 220].
Figure 7.7 Photograph of a CS101 setup with monitor and printer. Source: L. Warboys...
Figure 7.8 CS103 General test setup. Source: [1, Appendix A, p. 222].
Figure 7.9 CS104 general test setup. Source: [1, Appendix A, p. 225].
Figure 7.10 CS105 general test setup. Source: [1, Appendix A, p. 228].
Figure 7.11 CS114-1 calibration limits. Source: [1, p. 67].
Figure 7.12 CS114-2 maximum insertion loss for injection probes. Source: [1, p. 68].
Figure 7.13 CS114-3 calibration setup. Source: [1, p. 69].
Figure 7.14 CS 114-5 bulk cable injection evaluation. Source: [1, p. 71].
Figure 7.15 CS115 signal characteristics for all applications. Source: [1, p. 74].
Figure 7.16 CS115-2 calibration setup. Source: [1, p. 75].
Figure 7.17 CS115-3 bulk cable injection. Source: [1, p. 76].
Figure 7.18 Typical CS116 damped sinusoidal waveform. Source: [1, p. 80].
Figure 7.19 CS116-2 limit for all applications. Source: [1, p. 81].
Figure 7.20 CS116-3 Typical setup for calibration of test waveform. Source: [1, p. 82].
Figure 7.21 CS116-4 Typical test setup for bulk cable injection of damped sinusoidal...
Figure 7.22 RE102-3 limit for aircraft and space system applications. Source: [1, p. 116].
Figure 7.23 Typical tailored RE 102 limit for launch vehicle radiated emission limits....
Figure 7.24 Basic test setup. Source: [1, p. 118].
Figure 7.25 Antenna positioning. RE 102-6. Source: [1, p. 119].
Figure 7.26 RE102-6, Antenna positioning. Source: [1, p. 119].
Figure 7.27 Ridge horn antenna positioning RE 102-6 pictorially and photographically....
Figure 7.28 Double ridged antenna positioning. Source: [1, p. 119; 4].
Figure 7.29 Calibration and test setup for radiated harmonics and spurious emissions, 10 kHz...
Figure 7.30 Calibration and test setup for for RE 103-2 radiated harmonics and spurious...
Figure 7.31
Figure 7.32 Test equipment configuration. Source: [1, p. 147].
Figure 7.33 RS103 testing at JPL using log Yagi antenna.
Figure 7.34 Reverberation chamber setup. Source: [1, p. 150].
Figure 7.35 Reverberation chamber overview. Source: [1, p. 151].

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 EMC verification approach.
Figure 8.2 EMC requirements and verification flow.
Figure 8.3 EMC on satellite level: sources and victims.
Figure 8.4 Rockot launcher-radiated emissions (from Rockot user's guide [13]).
Figure 8.5 Rockot launcher-radiated susceptibility (from Rockot user's guide [13]).
Figure 8.6 Solar orbiter magnetic field requirements versus MIL-STD RE101.
Figure 8.7 Aeolus satellite emissions (courtesy Airbus D&S Ltd).
Figure 8.9 Aeolus skin connectors with connector savers (courtesy Airbus D&S Ltd).
Figure 8.10 Spacecraft autocompatibility.
Figure 8.11 Aeolus setup for autocompatibility testing with RF links (courtesy Airbus D&S...
Figure 8.13 Herschel solar panel mockup front side.
Figure 8.14 Herschel solar panel mockup mounted (backside and cabling visible).
Figure 8.15 MetOp satellite during RFC measurements in the CPTR (courtesy Airbus D&S Ltd).

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Example sensor and programmable averaging circuit.
Figure 9.2 The effect of averaging times on outputs in the presence of pulsed interference....
Figure 9.3 Conducted emissions voltage measurement.
Figure 9.4 Conducted emissions current measurement.
Figure 9.5 Open air test Site configured for 10 m radiated emission tests. The paved area...
Figure 9.6 Anechoic chamber configured for 1 m testing, as required by MIL STD 461....
Figure 9.7 Transverse electromagnetic wave in free space. λ is the wavelength, E is the...
Figure 9.8 Radiated emissions block diagram (typical).
Figure 9.9 Sample radiated emissions test result (Beresford and Li, 2013).
Figure 9.10 SDR GUI showing spectrum analyzer and spectrogram.
Figure 9.12 Out-of-band interference test result for a digital communications receiver, with...
Figure 9.13 Typical radiated susceptibility test system diagram.
Figure 9.14 Example of measurement uncertainty for a radiated emission test.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Near- and far-field characterization of an electromagnetic wave.
Figure 10.2 Internal and external EMI sources contributing to aircraft EME.
Figure 10.4 A US Army Black Hawk helicopter that crashed due to EMI in FCS.
Figure 10.5 Block diagram of the DFBW system.
Figure 10.6 Elements of the FBW system and their possible placement in aircraft.
Figure 10.7 Basic block diagram of an autopilot.
Figure 10.8 Block diagram of data exchange between elements of FMS.
Figure 10.9 Simplified process flow chart for system engineering approach to EMC testing of ...
Figure 10.10 Product emissions plotted along with limits of EMC standard (gray line).
Figure 10.11 Sheet depicting typical information on intrasystem EMC test document.
Figure 10.13 Block diagram of the LLDD setup. In the actual setup, a number of probes will be...
Figure 10.14 An example of transfer function curves for LLSF testing. From the enveloped...
Figure 10.15 (a) EMC testing of aircraft in open area. (b) EMC testing of eurofighter 2000 in...
Figure 10.16 EMI coupling from VHF antenna to ACE wiring.
Figure 10.17 (a) Simulation of lightning effects on aircraft. (b) Equivalent transient...
Figure 10.18 Basic block diagram of UAV flight control.
Figure 10.19 EMC test methodology for UAV flight control wireless link.
Figure 10.20 (a) A bonding jumper across elevator hinge; surface contact is encircled. (b)...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Typical selectivity curve for a traditional narrow band superheterodyne...
Figure 11.2 Small UAV with a Wi-Fi camera installed. There are unshielded wires on each of...
Figure 11.3 Example of FHSS/DSSS combination small UAV control signal. The light trace is...
Figure 11.4 Example of a typical 2.4-GHz Wi-Fi camera signal. The light trace was built up...
Figure 11.5 Composite of UAV controller spectrum (light traces) with Wi-Fi camera spectrum...
Figure 11.6 UAV sensitivity test setup example for a unidirectional radio control link. So...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Sketch of spacecraft and photos of scalar helium magnetometer and (b) fluxgate...
Figure 12.2 Typical developmental magnetic testing program approach.
Figure 12.3 Recommended MCRB structure.
Figure 12.4 Spacecraft with dedicated magnetometer booms for magnetometer sensors.
Figure 12.5 JUNO spacecraft using solar arrays as part of boom for magnetometer sensors.
Figure 12.6 Shielding effectiveness is highest below knee and lowest at saturation.
Figure 12.7 Mu-metal shielding evolution from initial design to implementation.
Figure 12.8 Examples of self-compensation attained by the orientation of components on a...
Figure 12.9 Typical battery wiring layout.
Figure 12.10 Mars global surveyor magnetometer.
Figure 12.11 Juno spacecraft magnetometer.
Figure 12.12 Cassini spacecraft and locations of magnetometers.
Figure 12.13 Inverse cube fall off along the magnetometer boom direction.
Figure 12.14 Main engine nickel heat shield.
Figure 12.15 Nickel heat shield and induced effects from external magnetic fields.
Figure 12.16 Inducted magnetic field effects due to the use of mu-metal material.
Figure 12.17 Magnetic self-compensation approach (back-to-back mounting).
Figure 12.18 Mu-metal shield to right used to shield isolator on the left.
Figure 12.19 Mu-metal shield requires a full enclosure to ensure appropriate shielding.
Figure 12.20 Hysteresis curve for soft magnetic material such as Mu-metal.
Figure 12.21 Typical spacecraft solar array and magnetometer locations.
Figure 12.22 Various solar panel cell layout configurations for optimal field reduction.
Figure 12.23 Typical setup for magnetic field testing of solar panels.
Figure 12.25 Battery wiring layout example/cross-strapping.
Figure 12.26 (a) Wrong way to string battery cells. Note large loop area around cell layout....
Figure 12.27 Classic Helmholtz coil pair (separation distance is equal to coil radius).
Figure 12.28 Typical magnetic coil facilities.
Figure 12.30 Nonmagnetic turntable, encoder, and stand (note brass ball bearings).
Figure 12.31 A 15-m diameter magnetic coils system.
Figure 12.32 Magnetic measurement the Helmholtz coil system.
Figure 12.33 Typical DC magnetic mapping test sequence.
Figure 12.34 Magnetization and demagnetization process of a DUT.
Figure 12.36 DUT inside a magnetic test Helmholtz coil system.
Figure 12.37 Near-field mapping angles.
Figure 12.38 (a) Magnetic moment from material and (b) magnetic moment from current loop.
Figure 12.39 Demagnetization profile.
Figure 12.40 Unit going from magnetized to demagnetized condition.
Figure 12.41 Helmholtz coils demagnetizer.
Figure 12.42 Large Helmholtz coil demagnetizer.
Figure 12.43 Coils driven with sinusoidal inputs producing slowly decaying fields.
Figure 12.44 Process of demagnetizing tools.
Figure 12.45 Magnetic spreadsheet summing all magnetic sources at the mag location.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Model distributions of neutral and ionic constituents as a function of altitude...
Figure 13.2 Representative electron density profiles for day and night, at solar minimum and...
Figure 13.3 Illustration of the Van Allen belts showing a transient third belt (Source: NASA...
Figure 13.4 Illustration of cyclotron motion of charged particles along geomagnetic field...
Figure 13.5 Illustration of how the close approach of the inner Van Allen belt is the source...
Figure 13.6 Illustration of a typical electron density profile in the SAA. (Source: NASA)
Figure 13.7 Dipolar magnetic field of the earth.
Figure 13.8 Schematic diagram of the earth's magnetosphere. (Source: NASA)
Figure 13.9 Composite sketch illustrating magnetospheric currents. (Source: NASA)
Figure 13.10 Properties of natural space plasma [22] (numerical data are approximate for...
Figure 13.11 Balance of charge currents (similar to Wrenn and Sims [23, pp. 491–511]).

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 The nature of the space radiation environment.
Figure 14.3 The generation of electron-hole pairs (ionization) and the resulting transient...
Figure 14.4 Illustration of the generation of electron-hole pairs in a gate.
Figure 14.5 Pulse generator circuit.
Figure 14.6 The execute circuit.
Figure 14.7 Charge injection circuit model.
Figure 14.8 Modeling a SET-induced current transient inside a digital gate.
Figure 14.9 Modeling a pulse (V3) at the output of a SET susceptible device (U2).
Figure 14.10 Illustration of the SET effect in a synchronous circuit.
Figure 14.12 Transient propagation in a flip-flop where transient causes a nonintended delay ...
Figure 14.13 SET-induced jitter and a false clock pulse present in a clock signal.
Figure 14.14 Triple-majority voting using separate voters. MUX and flip-flop combine into a ...
Figure 14.15 R-cell functional diagram in an RT54SX-S FPGA (with permission from Actel).
Figure 14.17 RT54SX triple-majority implementation of an FPGA shift register.
Figure 14.18 Direct relationship between increased crosstalk induced by SET and decrease in ...
Figure 14.19 Comparison of crosstalk induced from SET and from normal switching.
Figure 14.20 SET-induced crosstalk capable of causing wrong logic outputs.
Figure 14.21 SET-induced crosstalk capable of causing wrong timing delays.
Figure 14.22 Simulation of crosstalk and SET propagation through adjacent circuits.
Figure 14.23 An adjustable voltage regulator susceptible to SET.
Figure 14.24 The effect of SET propagation from device level to whole assembly.
Figure 14.25 Flowchart on the use of the Tabular model for assessing SET effects.
Figure 14.26 Example on the use of state transition diagram for modeling SET effects.
Figure 14.27 The effect of set in PWM of a DC/DC converter.
Figure 14.28 Layout of a high-energy particle accelerator.

Preface

Many of the early beginnings of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) are coincidental with the technological advances in the aerospace industry, going as far back as the 1960s. Since the 1960s, EMC has been an essential part in the development of aerospace components. Furthermore, EMC has become an essential part in the development of aerospace subsystems and systems. Therefore, the role of EMC in the aerospace business is over 50 years old, probably older than any other technology-related business. The Handbook of Aerospace Electromagnetic Compatibility is an up-to-date snapshot of where EMC is today in the aerospace business. It is the first book of its kind. To that end, it was decided to bring into this book different aspects of EMC as these are applied today in the aerospace business. Each chapter in the handbook is independent and self-contained, but, in a convergent way, the ensemble of these chapters allows the reader to become aware of the big picture concerning EMC in aerospace electronics for both aircraft and space systems. The handbook is designed in such a way that it will be mostly of applied nature, as it is tailored to the practicing EMC engineer. The goal is to primarily provide practicing EMC engineers and even newly graduated engineers, who are involved or would like to be involved in aerospace EMC, with a good overall background in aerospace EMC, so they can “hit the ground running” in the business. The chapters cover both aircraft EMC and spacecraft EMC, and an effort has been made to develop a good cross-section of both. Because the field of aerospace EMC is evolving, mostly by new technological applications in aerospace (e.g., autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles), it is expected that future editions of the handbook will address newer aerospace EMC applications or existing applications that have yet to be covered.

The handbook has been divided into 14 chapters. The organization of the chapters is such that the first two chapters are more theoretical in nature while the remaining chapters are of applied nature. Although the first two chapters are theoretical, the theory is blended to aerospace applications. Chapter 1, titled “Introduction to E3 Models and Techniques in Aerospace Systems,” addresses some theories and the accompanied mathematics for autonomous systems and coupled air and space systems. The theory of chaos is introduced as applied to EMC, and a mathematical approach to the effects of EMC in aerospace systems is also discussed. Chapter 2, titled “Deterministic and Statistical EMC Models for Field-to-Wire Coupling and Crosstalk in Wire Harness,” addresses EMC in cables. This chapter is useful in developing a theoretical framework for one of the major problems in aerospace EMC—the large amount of cabling used in aerospace systems, which are responsible for generating a large number of EMC problems in aerospace. Chapter 3, titled “EMP Protection and Verification,” looks at a subject, in detail, whose resurgence is now esteemed very important. Electromagnetic pulse (EMP) caused by either the space environment or nuclear explosions can cause incalculable damage to our aerospace systems and other technological areas such as electrical power, transportations, and informational infrastructures, just to name a few. Chapter 4, titled “HIRF and Lightning Effects and Testing,” covers another topic of particular importance to the aircraft industry. The chapter is very extensive and discusses the theory, such as coupling analysis and the electromagnetic environment and it effects; it also includes considerable information concerning testing and protection against electromagnetic effects for lightning effects on aircraft. Chapter 5, titled “Techniques to Design Robust Lightning Protection Circuits for Avionics Equipment,” discusses lightning effects at the box level and its electronics. The chapter combines both theory and testing methods for helping provide protection and hardening of avionics electronics. Chapter 6, titled “Pyrotechnic Systems in Aerospace Applications,” addresses a particular type of aerospace component that is uniquely susceptible to EMC problems. Pyrotechnic devices (or pyros) are present in both aircraft and spacecraft vehicles. Pyros execute one-time functions when activated. Therefore, the need exists to protect such devices from EMC problems, which could cause some of those one-time functions to be activated prematurely or inadvertently with potential catastrophic consequences. Chapter 7, titled “Assembly-Level EMC Testing of Space Components/Subsystems,” is dedicated to EMC testing of spacecraft components at the box or assembly level, while Chapter 8, titled “System-Level Testing of Spacecraft, thoroughly discusses the EMC testing of spacecraft at the subsystem level (i.e., the multiple spacecraft boxes that make up a subsystem). Chapter 9, titled “Subsystem EMC for Aircraft,” discusses EMC testing of electronic components and subsystem that are intended for integration onto aircraft. The chapter covers central aspects of some of the commonly encountered technical tests performed under aviation EMC standards. Chapter 10, titled “EMI Effects in Flight Control Systems and Their Mitigations,” is dedicated to EMC problems in aircraft control systems. The control systems of an aircraft are the most susceptible system to EMC problems because that is where most of the aircraft electronics resides, and these control systems manage all the control surfaces of the aircraft, which allow the aircraft to flight. The chapters cover both theoretical aspects of EMI control and EMC testing. Chapter 11, titled “EMC Considerations for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles,” presents a first-time introduction to EMC issues in unmanned aerial vehicles (also known as drones). We are in the early stages of this fascinating field, and this book provides interested parties with the early knowledge need to pursue this subject further in the future. Magnetic cleanliness is important not only for space systems but also for aircraft systems, which is the topic of Chapter 12, titled “DC Magnetic Cleanliness Description for Spaceflight Programs.” Space systems must perform very sensitive scientific measurements as dictated by their mission profile. These measurements are made by highly sensitive payload instruments and sensors onboard the spacecraft. The science measurements can be easily corrupted by noise from DC magnetic fields, hence the need to provide such cleanliness. The chapter addresses both theoretical and testing methods. Chapter 13, titled “Spacecraft Charging,” addresses a major issue in space systems that can cause significant EMC problems. Space vehicles are highly susceptible to charging due to the highly charged space environment. The accumulated charges can cause electrostatic discharge events in space, which can cripple satellites and many other types of space vehicles. Many examples of such space losses concerning spacecraft have been documented over the years. This chapter addresses the spacecraft charging phenomena and ways to protect a such charging. The final chapter, titled “Analysis and Simulations of Space Radiation-Induced Single-Event Effects and Transients,” addresses the detrimental impact of electronics circuits in space vehicles due to transient currents caused by the impact of highly energetic particles produced in the highly charged space environment. The chapter describes the theory and impact of such transient events and provides ways to decrease the damage done to space electronics.

Each chapter of this handbook has been independently reviewed by a member of the IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society (see Acknowledgments), most of whom have worked in the aerospace industry for many years. We thank the IEEE EMC Society, IEEE Press, and Wiley for their support of this handbook. I thank specially all the authors who dedicated their talent to the development of this handbook for a period of almost four years. The handbook is dedicated to each one of them.

Reinaldo J. Perez

Giancarlo Fortino	Andreas Molisch	Linda Shafer
David Alan Grier	Saeid Nahavandi	Mohammad Shahidehpour
Donald Heirman	Ray Perez	Sarah Spurgeon
Xiaoou Li	Jeffrey Reed	Ahmet Murat Tekalp