Cover
Title Page
Preface
About the Editors
1. Shahin Roohinejad
2. Ralf Greiner
3. Indrawati Oey
4. Jingyuan Wen
List of Contributors
1 Conventional Emulsions
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Conventional Emulsions Formation and Stability
3. 1.3 Composition of Conventional Emulsions for Food Applications
4. 1.4 Characterization of Conventional Emulsions
5. 1.5 Conventional Emulsions as Carriers for Delivery of Food Active Compounds
6. 1.6 In Vitro/In Vivo Digestion of Conventional Emulsions
7. 1.7 Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Food Active Ingredients
8. 1.8 Conclusion and Future Directions
9. References
2 Pickering Emulsions
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Formation and Stability of Pickering Emulsions
3. 2.3 Pickering Emulsions for Food Applications
4. 2.4 Characterization of Pickering Emulsions
5. 2.5 Pickering Emulsions as Carriers for Active Compounds
6. 2.6 In Vitro and In Vivo Digestion of Pickering Emulsions
7. 2.7 Pickering Emulsions: Rules and Regulations for Health and Safety
8. 2.8 Conclusions and Future Directions
9. Acknowledgments
10. References
3 Multiple Emulsions
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Preparation of Multiple Emulsions and Stability
3. 3.3 Multiple Emulsion Compositions for Food Application
4. 3.4 Characterization of Multiple Emulsions
5. 3.5 Multiple Emulsions as Carriers for Delivery of Food Active Compounds
6. 3.6 In Vitro Digestion of Multiple Emulsions
7. 3.7 Conclusions and Future Focus
8. Acknowledgment
9. References
4 Multilayered Emulsions
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Multilayered Emulsion Formation and Stability
3. 4.3 Multilayered Emulsion Compositions for Food Application
4. 4.4 Methods for Characterization of Multilayered Emulsions
5. 4.5 Multilayered Emulsions as Carriers for Delivery of Food Active Compounds
6. 4.6 Oxidative Stability and Digestibility of Multilayered Emulsions
7. 4.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
8. Acknowledgment
9. References
5 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Composition and Structure
3. 5.3 Preparation Methods
4. 5.4 Characterization
5. 5.5 Administration Routes of SLNs
6. 5.6 Application of SLN for Delivery of Food Active Compounds
7. 5.7 Safety of SLNs in the Food Industry
8. 5.8 Conclusions and Future Focus
9. References
6 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Materials Used in NLCs
3. 6.3 Nanostructured Lipid Carrier Fabrication Techniques
4. 6.4 Characterization of NLC
5. 6.6 Conclusions
6. References
7 Filled Hydrogel Particles
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Filled Hydrogel Particle Formation and Stability
3. 7.3 Filled Hydrogel Particle Compositions for Food Application
4. 7.4 Characterization of Filled Hydrogel Particles
5. 7.5 Filled Hydrogel Particles as Carriers for Delivery of Food Active Compounds
6. 7.6 In Vitro/In Vivo Digestion of Filled Hydrogel Particles
7. 7.7 Biological Fate, Bioavailability, Health, and Safety
8. 7.8 Conclusion
9. References
8 Nanoemulsions
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Formation of Nanoemulsions
3. 8.3 Nanoemulsion Composition for Food Application
4. 8.4 Characterization of Nanoemulsions
5. 8.5 Nanoemulsions as Carriers for Food Active Compounds
6. 8.6 In Vitro and In Vivo Digestion of Nanoemulsions
7. 8.7 Conclusions and Future Focus
8. References
9 Microemulsions
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Overview of Microemulsion Formation
3. 9.3 Microemulsion Composition for Food Application
4. 9.4 Microemulsions as Carriers of Bioactives and Antibacterial Components
5. 9.5 Food Microemulsions: Health and Safety
6. 9.6 In Vitro Digestion of Microemulsions
7. 9.7 Conclusions and Future Focus
8. References
10 Liposomes and Niosomes
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Liposome and Niosome Fabrication
3. 10.3 Liposome and Niosome Composition for Food Applications
4. 10.4 Characterization of Liposomes and Niosomes
5. 10.5 Liposomes and Niosomes as Carriers to Deliver Food Active Compounds
6. 10.6 In Vitro/In Vivo Digestion of Liposomes and Niosomes
7. 10.7 Biological Fate of Liposomes and Niosomes: Bioavailability, Health, and Safety
8. 10.8 Conclusion and Future Directions
9. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01
1. Table 1.1 Comparison of emulsifier (protein, polysaccharide, phospholipid, and small molecular surfactant) properties that may be utilized in the food industry (McClements, 2015; McClements and Gumus, 2016).
Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Overview of studies on in vitro and in vivo digestion of Pickering emulsions
Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1 W/O/W multiple emulsions for encapsulation of food active ingredients.
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 Hydrophilic‐lipophilic balance (HLB), acceptable daily intake (ADI) and solubility of selected food‐grade ionic small molecule emulsifiers used to produce multilayer m‐o/w emulsions.
2. Table 4.2 Application of multilayer emulsions in the food industry.
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 Ingredients used for production of solid lipid nanoparticles.
2. Table 5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of production techniques.
3. Table 5.3 Examples of bioactive compounds encapsulated by solid lipid nanoparticles.
Chapter 07
1. Table 7.1 Different biopolymers and their key features.
2. Table 7.2 Different preparation methods and associated parameters affecting particle size of filled hydrogel particles.
Chapter 08
1. Table 8.1 Classification of emulsions based on their droplet size.
2. Table 8.2 Recent studies on nanoemulsions prepared using a high‐pressure valve homogenizer.
3. Table 8.3 Recent studies on nanoemulsions prepared using a microfluidizer.
4. Table 8.4 Recent studies on nanoemulsions prepared using an ultrasonic homogenizer.
5. Table 8.5 Recent studies on nanoemulsions produced by high‐pressure homogenization combined with solvent evaporation.
6. Table 8.6 Recent studies on nanoemulsions prepared using low‐energy methods, such as spontaneous emulsification (SE) and emulsion inversion point (EIP).
7. Table 8.7 A review of recent studies on nanoemulsions as carriers for delivery of food active compounds.
8. Table 8.8 Recent studies on changes in the particle size and zeta potential of nanoemulsions during in vitro GI digestion and on the lipid digestion rate and bioaccessibility of nanoemulsions in the intestinal tract.
Chapter 09
1. Table 9.1 Comparison between emulsion, nanoemulsions, and microemulsions.
2. Table 9.2 List of surfactants commonly used in foods.
3. Table 9.3 Applications of microemulsions for solubilization of valuable food‐derived components.
Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Advantages and disadvantages of liposomes and niosomes.
2. Table 10.2 Potential entrapment efficiency and vesicle types formed using different methods.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 Cream and butter as oil‐in‐water and water‐in‐oil food emulsion.
2. Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of emulsion destabilization.
3. Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram of the physiological conditions in the mouth‐GI tract which can cause significant changes in emulsion structures.
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 Location of a colloidal solid particle at the oil‐water interface, as determined by the contact angle, θ, measured through the aqueous phase.
2. Figure 2.2 Schematic representation of a Pickering particle adsorbed at the oil‐water interface, with its position defined by the contact angle, θ, and surface free energy as described in equation 2.3 (situation a, left). For situation b, the surface free energy is defined in equation 2.5; the difference in free energy between situation a and b is the desorption energy.
3. Figure 2.3 Plot illustrating the desorption energy of a single colloidal solid particle with contact angle 10°, 50° or 90° as function of particle radius, for oil‐water interfacial tension of 20 mN/m and 40 mN/m. The dashed line represents thermal energy at 298 K (1 k_BT).
4. Figure 2.4 Interfacial deformation and associated capillary attractive force between solid particles at an oil‐water interface.
5. Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of particles at the surface of two neighboring emulsion droplets: (a) two dense particle monolayers separating two adjoining droplets; (b) single particles adsorbed at two distinct adjoining droplets; (c) low‐density network of aggregated Pickering particles.
6. Figure 2.6 Schematic illustration of Janus particles with several shapes and clear Janus boundaries: (a) spherical‐shaped particles showing the attractive capillary interaction arising from undulations in the Janus boundary, (b) dumbbell shaped, (c) ellipsoid shaped, and (d) cylinder shaped.
7. Figure 2.7 Size of objects (mainly of biological origin) on a nanometer scale to represent the size of Pickering stabilizers with respect to the definition of nanomaterials.
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 A schematic representation of the multiple emulsions, their types and formation from basic emulsions.
2. Figure 3.2 Type A, type B, and type C double emulsions (from left to right).
3. Figure 3.3 Two‐step emulsification for preparation of stable W/O/W multiple emulsions.
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 Multilayer emulsions are produced by a multistep procedure: (i) primary emulsion: oil and aqueous phases are homogenized together in the presence of a charged water‐soluble emulsifier; (ii) secondary emulsion: an oppositely charged polyelectrolyte is added to coat the droplets; (iii) tertiary emulsion (multilayer emulsions): sequential polyelectrolyte adsorption steps can be carried out.
2. Figure 4.2 Influence of pH, number, and type of layers on gravitational separation of multilayer emulsions. Primary: casein; secondary: casein‐pectin; tertiary: casein‐pectin‐chitosan; quaternary: casein‐pectin‐chitosan‐pectin.
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 Structural models of solid lipid nanoparticles. (a) Food active‐enriched core model. (b) Food active‐enriched shell model. (c) Solid solution model.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 Schematic presentation of SLNs showing a burst release from polymorphism. The lipid matrix consists of similar components which will lead to gelation and flocculation after storage.
2. Figure 6.2 Schematic presentation of nanoparticulate structures of SLNs and NLCs.
3. Figure 6.3 Algorithm showing the procedures of NLC fabrication using hot and cold homogenization techniques.
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 A filled hydrogel particle, detailing the different phases.
2. Figure 7.2 A schematic representation of the common methods for creating filled hydrogel particles. Data from Matalanis et al. (2010); McClements (2010); McClements (2012); Sung et al. (2015); Zeeb et al. (2015); Zhang et al. (2015a).
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Schematic illustration of mechanical devices used to produce nanoemulsions using high energy methods.
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Schematic of surfactant structure encountered self‐association structures in water, oil, or a mixture.
2. Figure 9.2 Hypothetical phase diagram of a system containing oil, water, and surfactant.
3. Figure 9.3 Mixture of oil, water, and surfactant as defined by Winsor.
4. Figure 9.4 Schematic of interaction energies in the interfacial area of a microemulsion system (oil‐surfactant‐water).
Chapter 10
1. Figure 10.1 Diagram of a liposome/niosome vesicle detailing different regions and components.
2. Figure 10.2 Factors to be considered in the selection of a liposomal/niosomal encapsulation method (Dua et al., 2012; Mozafari et al., 2008).
3. Figure 10.3 Schematic representation of the thin film hydration method detailing the required steps.
4. Figure 10.4 Schematic representation of the ether injection method.
5. Figure 10.5 Schematic representation of vesicle size reduction utilizing the bath sonication and probe sonicator methods.
6. Figure 10.6 Schematic representation of vesicle size reduction utilizing the extrusion technique.
7. Figure 10.7 Chemical structure of phosphatidyl choline.
8. Figure 10.8 Structure of non‐ionic surfactants. (a) Span 20; (b) Span 50; (c) Span 80.
9. Figure 10.9 Chemical structure of cholesterol.
10. Figure 10.10 Chemical structure of diacetyl phosphate.

This edition first published 2018
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data has been applied for

9781119247142

Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © GiroScience/Shutterstock

Preface

Emulsion‐based delivery systems are mainly designed to encapsulate, deliver, and control the release, digestion, and absorption of hydrophobic and hydrophilic food active ingredients including small (e.g. volatiles), medium (e.g. food bioactives such as omega‐3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid, butyrate, phytosterols, carotenoids, antioxidants, vitamins), and large molecular weight compounds (e.g. enzymes) in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Their functionality can be tailored by controlling their chemical composition and physical properties. This has led to the development of different emulsion systems, including conventional emulsions, Pickering emulsions, multiple emulsions, multilayered emulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, filled hydrogel particles, nanoemulsions, microemulsions, liposomal emulsions, and niosomes. Each of these systems has its own advantages and disadvantages for controlling the absorption and release of food active compounds.

This book covers the principles of emulsion‐based systems formation, their characterization and application as carriers for delivery of food active ingredients as well as their digestibility and health and safety challenges for use in food systems. In each chapter, the formation of a specific emulsion‐based system and its application for delivery of food active compounds used in food systems are discussed. Additionally, the biological fate, bioavailability, and health and safety challenges of using emulsion‐based systems as carriers for delivery of food active compounds in food systems are reviewed.

This book is designed to assist food scientists as well as those working in the food, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and beverage industries. The topics covered in this book are suitable for teaching in courses such as food chemistry, food biochemistry, sensory science, new product development, and food processing.

We gratefully acknowledge the contribution of all colleagues from around the world and the professional assistance provided by the staff of Wiley.

Shahin Roohinejad, Ralf Greiner, Indrawati Oey, and Jingyuan Wen

About the Editors

Shahin Roohinejad

Dr Roohinejad obtained his BSc in 2000 from the Islamic Azad University, Iran, in the field of food science and technology. He completed his MSc in 2009 in food biotechnology at the University of Putra Malaysia (UPM). In July 2011, he received a full doctoral scholarship award from the Department of Food Science at the University of Otago in New Zealand, and he graduated in December 2014. In June 2015, Dr Roohinejad received a Georg Forster Research Fellowship award granted by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation to pursue his postdoctoral research at the Department of Food Technology and Bioprocess Engineering, Max Rubner‐Institut (MRI), The German Federal Research Institut of Nutrition and Food. Currently, he is a postdoctoral research associate at the Food Science and Nutrition Department, University of Minnesota, USA. He is a professional member of the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), graduate member of the New Zealand Institute of Food Science and Technology (NZIFST), associate newsletter editor of the IFT Non‐thermal Processing Division (NPD), a member of the IFT Press Advisory Group and GHI (Global Harmonization Initiative) Ambassador in Germany. In the last 10 years, he has worked on different food areas such as emulsion‐based systems, emerging food processing, nanotechnology, and functional foods. Dr Roohinejad’s research activities have resulted in more than 70 original papers in peer‐reviewed journals, book chapters, abstracts, and short papers in congress proceedings.

Ralf Greiner

Dr Greiner joined the Federal Research Centre for Nutrition, Karlsruhe, Germany, in 1990 as a PhD student after graduating in chemistry at the University of Stuttgart. In the early stages of his career as Deputy Head of the Centre for Molecular Biology, he was mainly engaged in research relating to genetically modified food and enzymes for food processing, with phytases being the center of his interests. In 2007, he held a position as Visiting Professor for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil, working on solid‐state fermentation and fungal enzyme production. In 2008, he returned to Karlsruhe where he became Head of the Department of Food Technology and Bioprocess Engineering of the Max Rubner‐Institut (MRI). His research covers the studying and modeling of conventional and new processing technologies, as well as food nanotechnology, but phytases are still the main focus of his interests. Dr Greiner is a representative of MRI in several international and national associations on food technology, food control, and food nanotechnology. In 2012, he accepted a position as an Honorary Assistant Professor in the School of Biological Sciences of the University of Hong Kong. His research activities have resulted in approximately 120 original papers in peer‐reviewed journals, 37 book chapters and 260 abstracts or short papers in congress proceedings. In addition, Dr Greiner is Editor of Food Control.

Indrawati Oey

Professor Oey is Head of the Food Science Department at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, and Principal Investigator at the Riddet Institute, Palmerston North, New Zealand. The University of Otago awarded her a full professorial chair as Professor of Food Science in 2009. She graduated with a BSc in Agricultural Technology (Food Science and Nutrition) from Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia, and earned her MSc in Postharvest Food Processing and Preservation and PhD in Applied Biological Sciences from Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), Belgium. She was a postdoctoral fellow at the Research Foundation‐Flanders at KU Leuven, Belgium (2000–2009). She was the chair of Training and Career Development for the European Union‐funded NovelQ Integrated Project (2006–2008). She is a Fellow of the New Zealand Institute of Food Science and Technology (NZIFST), a professional member of the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) and NZIFST, served as Member‐at‐Large for the Executive Committee Board of Non‐thermal Processing Division – Institute of Food Technologists (2012–2015), and as secretary of the NZIFST Otago/Southland branch (2010–2015). She received the George Stewart Award from the Institute of Food Technologists (United States) in 2006. In the last decade, she has been actively involved in building international collaboration in the area of novel food processing, nanotechnology, functional foods, and food innovation. Professor Oey’s research activities have resulted in more than 200 original papers in peer‐reviewed journals, book chapters, abstracts, and short papers in congress proceedings.

Jingyuan Wen

Professor Wen has over 20 years’ research experience in pharmacology, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, drug discovery from natural products, novel drug formulation, and delivery system design. She received her Bachelor of Medicine in 1986 and her Master’s degree in pharmacology in 1991 at the School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, China. She was awarded a PhD in Pharmaceutical Science in 2003 from the School of Pharmacy, University of Otago, New Zealand. She worked as a post‐doc researcher at Neuren Pharmaceuticals Ltd, New Zealand. She was appointed as a lecturer/senior lecturer at the School of Pharmacy, University of Auckland, in 2005. In 2015, she was promoted to Associate Professor, recognizing excellence in teaching and research. She was also appointed as a research theme leader in drug delivery in 2013. Under her supervision, 12 PhD students, 12 Master’s students, and 160 research dissertation and international exchange students have completed their degree. To date, she has published over 200 peer‐reviewed articles, patents, book chapters, and conference abstracts in drug delivery, natural products, and biological science. Professor Wen is a committee member of the Controlled Release Society (CRS), NZ local chapter. She is also an abstracts reviewer for the CRS (from 2007 to present) and was chair of the Oral Drug Delivery Award Committee of the CRS (2007 to 2012). She has established contacts with national and international commercial companies and has been involved in joint projects and consultations for national and international pharmaceutical and healthcare companies since 2005.

List of Contributors

Alireza Abbaspourrad
Department of Food Science
Cornell University
Ithaca, USA

Murad Al Gailani
School of Pharmacy
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand

Alaa El‐Din A. Bekhit
Department of Food Science
University of Otago
Dunedin, New Zealand

Claire C. Berton‐Carabin
Laboratory of Food Process Engineering
Wageningen University and Research
Wageningen, The Netherlands

Guanyu Chen
School of Pharmacy
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand

Shuo Chen
School of Pharmacy
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand

Meinou N. Corstens
Laboratory of Food Process Engineering
Wageningen University and Research
Wageningen, The Netherlands

Maral Seidi Damyeh
Department of Food Science and Technology
School of Agriculture, Shiraz University
Shiraz, Iran

David W. Everett
Riddet Institute, Palmerston NorthNew Zealand
Dairy Innovation Institute
California Polytechnic State University
San Luis Obispo, California, USA

Hadi Hashemi Gahruie
Department of Food Science and Technology
School of AgricultureShiraz University
Shiraz, Iran

Kelvin K.T. Goh
Massey Institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Sciences
Massey University
Auckland, New Zealand

Ralf Greiner
Department of Food Technology and Bioprocess Engineering
Max Rubner‐Institut
Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food
Karlsruhe, Germany

Seyedeh Sara Hashemi
Burn and Wound Healing Research Center
Shiraz University of Medical Sciences
Shiraz, Iran

Kacie K.H.Y. Ho
Laboratory of Food Process Engineering
Wageningen University and Research
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Plants for Human Health Institute
North Carolina State University
Kannapolis, NC, USA

Mohamed Koubaa
Ecole Supérieure de Chimie Organique et Minérale,
Compiègne, France

Sung Je Lee
Massey Institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Sciences
Massey University
Auckland, New Zealand

Mehrdad Niakousari
Department of Food Science and Technology
School of Agriculture, Shiraz University
Shiraz, Iran

Nooshin Nikmaram
Department of Food Science and Technology
Islamic Azad University of Sabzevar
Sabzevar, Iran

Indrawati Oey
Department of Food Science
University of Otago,
Dunedin, New Zealand
Riddet Institute, Palmerston North New Zealand

Alireza Rafati
Division of Pharmacology & Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Sarvestan Branch, Islamic Azad University
Sarvestan, Iran

Ali Rashidinejad
Riddet Institute, Centre of Research Excellence
Massey University
Palmerston North, New Zealand

Shahin Roohinejad
Department of Food Technology and Bioprocess Engineering
Max Rubner‐Institut
Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food
Karlsruhe, Germany

Anja Schröder
Laboratory of Food Process Engineering
Wageningen University and Research
Wageningen, The Netherlands

Karin Schroën
Laboratory of Food Process Engineering
Wageningen University and Research
Wageningen, The Netherlands

Pankaj Sharma
Fonterra Co‐operative Group Limited
Palmerston North, New Zealand

Anges Teo
Massey Institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Sciences
Massey University
Auckland, New Zealand

Jingyuan Wen
School of Pharmacy
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand

Marie Wong
Massey Institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Sciences
Massey University
Auckland, New Zealand

Naibo Yin
School of Pharmacy
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand

Quan Yuan
Massey Institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Sciences
Massey University
Auckland, New Zealand

Emulsion‐based Systems for Delivery of Food Active Compounds

Formation, Application, Health and Safety