reading

Cover
Title Page
List of Contributors
Preface & Acknowledgements
1 Printed Batteries
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Types of Printed Batteries
3. 1.3 Design of Printed Batteries
4. 1.4 Main Advantages and Disadvantages of Printed Batteries
5. 1.5 Application Areas
6. 1.6 Commercial Printed Batteries
7. 1.7 Summary and Outlook
8. Acknowledgements
9. References
2 Printing Techniques for Batteries
1. 2.1 Introduction/Abstract
2. 2.2 Materials and Substrates
3. 2.3 Printing Techniques
4. 2.4 Conclusions
5. Acknowledgements
6. References
3 The Influence of Slurry Rheology on Lithium-ion Electrode Processing
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Slurry Formulation
3. 3.3 Rheological Characteristics of Electrode Slurry
4. 3.4 Effects of Rheology on Electrode Processing
5. 3.5 Conclusion
6. List of Symbols and Abbreviations
7. References
4 Polymer Electrolytes for Printed Batteries
1. 4.1 Electrolytes for Conventional Batteries
2. 4.2 Electrolytes for Printed Batteries
3. 4.3 Summary
4. References
5 Design of Printed Batteries
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Design of Printed Battery Components
3. 5.3 Aesthetic Versatility of Printed Battery Systems
4. 5.4 Summary and Prospects
5. Acknowledgements
6. References
6 Applications of Printed Batteries
1. 6.1 Printed Microbatteries
2. 6.2 Printed Primary Batteries
3. 6.3 Printed Rechargeable Batteries
4. 6.4 High-Performance Printed Structured Batteries
5. 6.5 Power Electronics and Energy Harvesting
6. References
7 Industrial Perspective on Printed Batteries
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Printing Technologies for Functional Printing
3. 7.3 Comparison of Conventional Battery Manufacturing Methods with Screen Printing Technology
4. 7.4 Industrial Aspects of Screen-printed Thin Film Batteries
5. 7.5 Industrial Applications and Combination With Other Flexible Electronic Devices
6. 7.6 Industrial Perspective on Printed Batteries
7. 7.7 Conclusion
8. References
8 Open Questions, Challenges and Outlook
1. Acknowledgements
2. References
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02
1. Table 2.1 Main components and properties of different printed battery types.
2. Table 2.2 Selection of important parameters for screen printing [33].
3. Table 2.3 Main advantages and disadvantages of the doctor blade and spray-coating techniques.
4. Table 2.4 Printing techniques applied to printed batteries.
Chapter 03
1. Table 3.1 The main ingredients in electrode slurries.
2. Table 3.2 Rheological analyses of various lithium-ion battery slurries.
Chapter 04
1. Table 4.1 Summary of candidate flexible battery technologies.
2. Table 4.2 Dependency of room temperature ionic conductivity on the size of ceramic particulates (barium titanium oxide) added [54].
Chapter 05
1. Table 5.1 Materials and formulations of electrode slurries/inks for various printed batteries.
2. Table 5.2 Commercially available metallic inks.
3. Table 5.3 Types, components, printing techniques, and electrochemical characteristics of various printed power sources.
Chapter 06
1. Table 6.1 Differences between printed and conventional batteries.
Chapter 07
1. Table 7.1 Major quality aspects in the fields of graphical printing and functional printing.
2. Table 7.2 Comparison of selected parameters of the common printing technologies. Adapted from [2], Table 1. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
3. Table 7.3 Presentation of selected electrochemical systems that can be realized by screen printing technologies at ambient environment and their specifications for carrier substrates.
4. Table 7.4 Evaluation matrix of the technology-readiness levels of the individual components of printed NiMH and zinc-based batteries.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01
1. Figure 1.1 Research articles published related to inks and printed electronics. Search performed in Scopus database with the keywords “inks” and “printed electronics” on 19 June 2017.
2. Figure 1.2 An overview of printed batteries and main applications.
3. Figure 1.3 An overview of the functional inks and relevant requirements in the area of printed battery research.
4. Figure 1.4 Main features and attributes of printed batteries.
5. Figure 1.5 Schematic illustration of the main constituents and representation of the charge and discharge modes of a battery.
6. Figure 1.6 Schematic representation of a printed battery in the stack or sandwich cell architecture.
7. Figure 1.7 Schematic representation of a printed battery in the coplanar or parallel cell architecture.
8. Figure 1.8 Schematic representation of the interdigitated battery architecture.
9. Figure 1.9 Schematic representation of the gear architecture.
10. Figure 1.10 Main advantages of printed batteries.
11. Figure 1.11 Main disadvantages of printed batteries.
12. Figure 1.12 Main application areas of printed batteries.
Chapter 02
1. Figure 2.1 There are a number of established printing and patterning technologies; some can be employed for printing battery materials.
2. Figure 2.2 Schematic representation of the main components of a battery.
3. Figure 2.3 Principle of the flatbed screen printing process.
4. Figure 2.4 Principle of a rotary screen printing process.
5. Figure 2.5 Left – plain (PW) and right – twill (TW) 1:2 weave: black: side view of thread.
6. Figure 2.6 Screen properties in transferring ink [39].
7. Figure 2.7 Schematic of stencil printing. The top view is given in the upper part of the sketch.
8. Figure 2.8 The principle of the letterpress printing process.
9. Figure 2.9 The principle of the flexography printing process.
10. Figure 2.10 The principle of the gravure printing process.
11. Figure 2.11 Cross cut of a gravure cylinder.
12. Figure 2.12 Lithographic/offset printing setup.
13. Figure 2.13 Schematic illustration of: a) doctor blade and b) spray-coating techniques.
14. Figure 2.14 Scheme showing the basic principles of (a) CIJ technology, DoD-based (b) TIJ and (c) PIJ technology.
15. Figure 2.15 Scheme showing the basic principle of SIJ based on electro-hydrodynamic inkjet technology.
16. Figure 2.16 Images of printers (a) Primefire 106 + L from Heidelberg AG and (b) Heidelberg AG Gallus Labelfire 340 [86, 88].
17. Figure 2.17 SIJ inkjet printer SIJ-S050 from SIJTechnology Inc. (a) full machine, (b) inside view [70, 71].
18. Figure 2.18 Image of application illustrating the potential for printing of graphics on three-dimensional products using inkjet technology, e.g. the Omnifire from Heidelberg AG.
19. Figure 2.19 Main procedures for printed batteries.
Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 The viscosity data of mixtures with different concentrations of carbon black dispersed in the PVDF solution.
2. Figure 3.2 Viscoelastic data of a cathode slurry. The storage modulus (G’) is greater than the loss modulus (G”) for the cathode slurry, which has 56wt% active material, 1.3wt% Super-P, 2.5wt% KS-6, 3.2wt% PVDF and 37wt% NMP.
3. Figure 3.3 Comparison of viscosity curves obtained with different mixing devices.
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 Cross-sectional SEM images of fully printed cells with thick and thin GPEs. Left: fully printed thick GPE cell; right: fully printed thin GPE cell .
2. Figure 4.2 Cross-sectional SEM micrograph of a spray-painted full cell showing its multilayer structure, with interfaces between successive layers indicated by dashed lines for clarity (scale bar is 100 mm) [22].
3. Figure 4.3 Charge–discharge curves for 1st, 2nd, 20th and 30th cycles (a) Specific capacity vs cycle numbers for the spray-painted full cell (LCO/MGE/LTO) cycled at a rate of C/8 between 2.72 and 1.5 V, (b) capacity of the different printed cells, showing 10% variation of the absolute capacity values (c) [20, 22].
4. Figure 4.4 Viscosity behavior of the representative electrode, gel electrolyte and ionic liquid inks as a function of the applied shear rate [30–32].
5. Figure 4.5 Electrochemical potential stability windows of ionic-liquid electrolytes with 0–0.75 M zinc salt concentrations [32].
6. Figure 4.6 Electrochemical impedance plots of a cell after assembly [32].
7. Figure 4.7 (a) High-discharge-rate data from printed 350-µm-thick zinc polymer battery with more than 5C-rate discharge capability. (b) Discharge curves at continuous currents (0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 mA/cm² (blue through gray) from printed zinc polymer cell (the data in (a) and (b) are obtained from different cells) [35].
8. Figure 4.8 Ionic conductivity of PVDF/ionic-liquid mixtures [18].
9. Figure 4.9 Galvanostatic cycling of tape-cast LiFePO₄-based porous composite electrode with printed ionogel in half-cell with lithium-metal counter electrode from 2.0 to 4.1 V at C/30 rate and at room temperature [41].
10. Figure 4.10 3D-printed miniature cell. Digital images of the 3D-printed electrodes (a) and (b), and arrays (c). Charge and discharge profiles of the 3D-printed full cell (d) [44].
11. Figure 4.11 Optical micrographs showing the strength and flexibility of the nanocomposite solid-state electrolyte membranes laser printed on a glass slide. (a) Membrane laser printed on a glass slide, (b) membrane partially lifted off from glass slide, and (c) membrane held using tweezers [52].
12. Figure 4.12 SEM micrographs of laser-printed solid-state electrolyte onto porous LiCoO₂ cathodes. The inks of various viscosities (DBE concentrations) are: (a) 91 wt.% DBE, (b) 90 wt.% DBE, (c) 89 wt.% DBE, (d) 88 wt.% DBE, and (e) 87 wt.% DBE [52].
13. Figure 4.13 The temperature dependence of ionic conductivity of the laser-printed nanocomposite solid-state electrolyte membrane. The inset figure is the complex resistivity plot for the same membrane [52].
14. Figure 4.14 (a) Representative cross-section and cutout schematic of an embedded lithium-ion microbattery fabricated by laser direct-write (LDW) printing using a nanocomposite solid-polymer ionic-liquid (nc-SPIL) electrolyte. (b) Scanning-electron-microscopy (SEM) cross-section showing the layer structures. The numbers 1 through 4 correspond to the metal current collector, the carbon anode, the nc-SPIL electrolyte, and the lithium cobalt oxide cathode, respectively. Layers 2, 3, and 4 are deposited sequentially by LDW. (c) SEM images of the nc-SPIL separator with the cathode and anode removed, showing the structural integrity of the nc-SPIL after cleaving. (d) Actual LDW microbattery in a polyimide substrate shown against a US dime for scale. The black square (3 mm²) indicates the active battery portion of the system [54].
15. Figure 4.15 50th to 53rd charge–discharge cycle of an LiCoO₂-based microbattery made by LDW [54].
Chapter 05
1. Figure 5.1 Schematic of printed battery architecture and printing technologies. Examples and features of printed battery electronics integration are also described [4].
2. Figure 5.2 Printed electrodes with mixed electron/ion conduction. (a) Rheological properties (viscosity and viscoelasticity represented by storage modulus (G’) and loss modulus (G”)) of the electrode slurry, which consisted of LiFePO₄ (as cathode material), or Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ (as anode material), carbon black additives, and ionically conductive matrix (= UV-crosslinkable ETPTA monomer + 1 M LiPF₆ in EC/PC) without NMP solvent. (b) Photographs showing mechanical flexibility (upper image) and printability (represented by word “UNIST”, lower image) of the electrode slurry. (c) Schematic illustration of the UV-IL technique-driven micropatterning procedure and an SEM image showing the printed electrode with an inverse replica of the finely defined microscale stripe pattern.
3. Figure 5.3 Inkjet-printed cellulose nanomat on commercial A4 paper. (a) Effect of substrates on the resolution of the inkjet printing process: the wetting substrate (left upper side, random spreading of ink droplets), the non-wetting substrate (left lower side, coffee-ring formation), and the CNF nanomat on A4 paper (right side, high-resolution print pattern). (b) Variation in the water-contact angles of different substrates with time. (c) SEM images (surface view) of the inkjet-printed ((SWNT/AC) + Ag NWs) electrodes on different substrates. (d) Electric resistances of the inkjet-printed ((SWNT/AC) + Ag NWs) electrodes on different substrates.
4. Figure 5.4 Printed, UV-cured gel separator membrane. (a) Polymerization scheme of polyacrylic gel electrolyte, where R is the water-soluble photoinitiator, 4-(2-hydroxyethoxy) phenyl(2-hydroxyl-2-propyl) ketone. (b) Photolysis of the photoinitiator after exposure to UV light. (c) Photograph of the polymerized gel separator.
5. Figure 5.5 Spray-printed separator membranes. (a) SEM image showing the layered and fibrous structure. (b) Nyquist plot of the spray-printed separator membrane. The separator shows an ionic conductivity of ~ 1.24 mS cm⁻¹.
6. Figure 5.6 Printed, flexible solid-state electrolyte. (a) Conceptual illustration of the printed, flexible solid-state electrolyte. (b) Dripping characteristic of a liquid electrolyte (F-solution) containing no Al₂O₃ nanoparticles. (c) Non-dripping behavior of UV-curable electrolyte mixture (V-solution) containing Al₂O₃ nanoparticles before UV-crosslinking reaction. (d) Comparison of viscosity between the F- and V-solution as a function of shear rate. (e) SEM images (surface) of the printed solid-state electrolyte. (f) Photographs showing the highly bendable and twistable features of the printed solid-state electrolyte. (g) FT-IR spectra depicting acrylic C = C double bonds of the printed solid-state electrolyte before/after UV irradiation.
7. Figure 5.7 Schematic illustration of batteries with different component configurations: (a) in series (b) in parallel.
8. Figure 5.8 Printed, flexible Zn/MnO₂ batteries based on Nylon mesh-containing electrodes. (a) SEM image (cross-section) of the mesh-embedded Zn electrode and (b) high-resolution SEM image of the Zn-silver interface. (c) Schematic diagram of the assembled Zn/MnO₂ alkaline battery with in-series configuration. (d) Photograph of the flexible Zn/MnO₂ battery laminated inside a polyethylene pouch. (e) Discharge profiles of the flexible Zn/MnO₂ battery at a constant current of 1 mA under the bent state (bending diameter = 0.95–3.81 cm).
9. Figure 5.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the Zn-MnO₂ battery with 10 series-connected cells, which was printed on a fibrous substrate. The printed silver electrodes served as the current collectors and interconnects. Amorphous fluoropolymer solution printed inbetween the Zn and MnO₂ electrodes segregated the electrolyte in individual cells. The resultant printed membrane was cut into two sheets (sheets A and B). Each electrode in sheets A and B was soaked in KOH/ZnO electrolyte and stacked together to complete the battery. (b) Photograph of sheets A and B after printing Zn, MnO₂ electrodes, silver current collectors and interconnects (scale bar = 2 cm). (c) Discharge profile of the battery under the load of a 100 kΩ resistor. (d) Output from the printed 5-stage ring oscillator when powered with a 14 V printed battery (blue line: oscillator output, red line: battery output).
10. Figure 5.10 Schematic representation of textile supercapacitors based on knitted carbon fibers and activated carbon inks.
11. Figure 5.11 All-inkjet-printed, solid-state flexible supercapacitors (SCs) on A4 paper. (a) Photograph of the inkjet-printed SCs. (b) Photograph of the inkjet-printed, letter-shaped SC that was seamlessly connected with the inkjet-printed electrical circuits and an LED lamp. (c) Photograph of the inkjet-printed, traditional Korean “Taegeuk” symbol-like SC that was seamlessly connected with the inkjet-printed electrical circuits and an LED lamp. (d) Photograph of the inkjet-printed Korea map, wherein the inkjet-printed SCs were seamlessly connected to LED lamps via the inkjet-printed electrical circuits. (e) SEM image of the LED lamp connected to the inkjet-printed electric circuits. (f) CV profile (scan rate = 1.0 mV s⁻¹) of the inkjet-printed SC in the map. (g) Photograph depicting the operation of the blue LED lamp in the smart cup (with cold water (~10 °C)), wherein the inset is a photograph of a temperature sensor assembled with an Arduino board. (h) Photograph depicting the operation of the red LED lamp in the smart cup (with hot water (~80 °C)).
12. Figure 5.12 Spray-printed lithium-ion batteries. (a) (Left) Glazed ceramic tile with spray-printed lithium-ion cell (area = 5 × 5 cm², capacity = 30 mAh) before packaging. (Right) Similar cell packaged with laminated PE-Al-PET sheets after electrolyte addition and heat sealing. (b) Mass distribution of components in the spray-printed lithium-ion battery. (c) Cross-sectional SEM image of the spray-printed full cell showing its multilayered structure, with interfaces between successive layers indicated by dashed lines for clarity (Scale bar is 100 µm). (d) Charge/discharge curves for 1st and 30th cycles. (e) Specific capacity vs. cycle numbers for the spray-printed full cell (LiCoO₂/Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) cycled at a rate of C/8 between 2.7 and 1.5 V. (f) Capacities of 8 out of 9 cells fall within 10% of the targeted capacity of 30 mAh, suggesting good process control over a complex device even with manual spray printing.
13. Figure 5.13 3D-printed microbatteries based on high-aspect-ratio electrode arrays that were interdigitated on a sub-millimeter scale. (a) Photograph of the 3D-printed battery after packaging. (b) SEM image of the 3D-printed, 16-layer interdigitated electrode. (c) Discharge profiles of the 3D-printed microbattery as a function of areal capacity. (d, e) Digital images of a miniaturized version of the 3D-printed graphene electrodes. (f) Charge/discharge profiles of the 3D-printed full cell.
14. Figure 5.14 Printed, solid-state lithium-ion batteries. (a) Photograph showing direct fabrication and operation of the printed lithium-ion cell on paper-made eyeglasses. (b) Photograph showing direct fabrication of the printed lithium-ion cell on a transparent glass cup with curvilinear surface. The printed lithium-ion cell, having being mounted on the round glass cup, delivered normal charge/discharge behavior (at charge/discharge current density of 0.05 C/0.05 C under a voltage range of 1.0 − 2.5 V). (c) Photograph of “PRISS” letters-shaped, printed lithium-ion cell (left side) and its charge/discharge profiles at charge/discharge current density of 0.05 C/0.05 C under voltage range of 1.0 − 2.5 V (right side), which were measured having being completely wound along rods with different diameters (=5, 10, 15 mm).
15. Figure 5.15 Rechargeable, skin-worn Ag-Zn tattoo battery. (a) Schematic illustration depicting the fabrication steps of the Zn/Ag tattoo cell. (b) Photograph of the Zn/Ag tattoo cell on a temporary transfer tattoo support. (c) Charge/discharge profile of the Zn/Ag tattoo cell. (d) Application of the Zn/Ag tattoo cell onto the skin.
16. Figure 5.16 Stencil-printed, Ag2O-Zn battery. (a) Schematic representation depicting the stencil printing of the electrode slurry. (b) Cross-sectional illustration of the stencil-printed Ag2O-Zn battery. (c) Top-down view of the stencil-printed Ag2O-Zn battery stack. (d) SEM image of the stencil-printed Ag2O-Zn battery stack.
Chapter 06
1. Figure 6.1 (a) Schematic of cross-section of the thin film battery and (b) discharge curve of the battery at various C-rates [17].
2. Figure 6.2 Schematic of dispenser-printer head with ink deposited in form of continuous line and drops [1].
3. Figure 6.3 (a) Optical images of a dispenser-printed lithium ion polymer battery after the deposition of graphite, PVDF separator and LCO layer [2]. (b) Schematic of the fabrication process of Zn-MnO₂ battery. (c) SEM micrograph Zn-MnO₂ battery. (d) Discharge characteristics [3].
4. Figure 6.4 (a–d) Schematic of the fabrication process of three-dimensional interdigitated microbattery. The process starts with patterning the gold current collector, followed by depositing the slurry for the anode and cathode, followed by encapsulation and soaking of the electrode with electrolyte. (e, f) SEM micrographs of the microbattery. (g) Rate performance of the microbattery with 8 and 16 layers of electrodes. (h) Photograph of the encapsulated microbattery [16].
5. Figure 6.5 (a) Schematic of the P-80 Polaroid battery and (b) discharge curve of the battery pack at various C-rates.
6. Figure 6.6 (a) Schematic of a printed battery laminated with a printed electronic device. (b) Demonstration of a printed temperature sensor with printed electronics powered by two-printed batteries connected in series. (c) Demonstration of printed batteries integrated with a hybrid sensor.
7. Figure 6.7 (a) Schematic of the Zn-MnO₂ flexible battery, (b) optical images of the battery, (c) discharge curves of the battery with varying diameter of carbon fiber and (d) discharge curves of the battery when flexed at various bending radii [30].
8. Figure 6.8 (a) Process flow of fabricating a mesh-embedded flexible alkaline battery. Discharge curves at the mesh-battery at various C-rates (b) and discharge curves of the battery when flexed to various bending radii (c). (d) Mesh-battery powering a green-LED under flat and bend conditions [11]. (e) A flexible alkaline battery with reinforced electrode structure powering an interactive display and microcontroller. The display shows FLAT when the battery is flat and the display shows BEND (f) when the battery is bent [31].
9. Figure 6.9 (a) Schematic showing the integration of a high voltage battery with a printed sensor. (b) Schematic of an all-printed high voltage Zn-MnO₂ battery. The battery consists of ten Zn-MnO₂ cells connected in series. (c) Optical image of a printed ring oscillator and (d) output from a five-stage ring oscillator powered with a high voltage printed battery [18].
10. Figure 6.10 (a, b) Schematic of the flexible lithium ion battery with carbon nanotube-based current collector. The electrodes are attached to a Xerox paper with PVDF binder. (c) Photograph of the battery under flexed state, (d) cross-section SEM micrograph of the battery, (e) charge–discharge curve of the battery and (f) photograph of the battery powering a red-LED under flexed state [38].
11. Figure 6.11 (a) Schematic of the nickel-coated textile fabric and EDS mapping showing the distribution of carbon, nickel, and iron. (b) Optical image showing the plain textile before and after electroless deposition of nickel and deposition of the slurry. (c) SEM micrograph showing the polyester textile with the nickel metal on the yarn. (d) and (e) Electrochemical characterization of the LFP- and LTO-based batteries when folding and unfolding the batteries with textile and metal foils as the current collector [39].
12. Figure 6.12 Demonstration of the textile battery attached to a shirt (a) and watch (b) [39].
13. Figure 6.13 (a) Illustration of the unrolling the textile-based flexible lithium ion battery. (b) Schematic of the battery module containing 16 batteries in series to increase the potential to 29 V with a capacity of 25 mAh. Photographs of the textile battery module integrated in a tent (c) and roller blind (d) [40].
14. Figure 6.14 Optical image (a) and schematic illustration (b) of the coplanar flexible battery. The battery is composed of two cells connected in series. The electrodes have an interdigitated design. The cross-section at the bottom shows the curved shape of the current collector foil. The curved design helps to prevent shorting of the electrode during flexing [41].
15. Figure 6.15 Examples of devices powered with a flexible coplanar battery. (a) A cosmetic patch with iontophoresis function powered with a flexible battery, (b) smart bank card to provide additional security for transactions powered with a battery, and (c) smart watch with flexible batteries embedded inside the band of the watch to provide additional capacity [41].
16. Figure 6.16 (a) Schematic of Zn-MnO₂ stretchable battery, (b) discharge capacities of the stretchable battery with cycle number with the battery held at various state of stretching, and (c, d) demonstration of the battery retaining its voltage even after stretching of the battery by 50% [47].
17. Figure 6.17 Photograph of the Kirigami battery in compressed (a) and stretched (b) state. (c, d) Photograph of the Kirigami battery continuously powering a Samsung Galaxy Gear watch even under stretched state. Discharge curves at a slow rate (e) representing standby mode and at a high rate (f) representing watching a video on the watch [48].
18. Figure 6.18 (a) Schematic of structured electrode with density gradient along its thickness. The electrode near the current collector is denser as compared to the electrode away from the current collector. (b) Schematic of structured electrode with gaps between islands of active material.
19. Figure 6.19 (a) Schematic of the co-extrusion printing process developed by researchers at Palo Alto Research Center. (b) Schematic of structured electrode with alternating patterns of high-density and low-density regions to improve Li Ion diffusion through the electrode [56].
20. Figure 6.20 Power electronics commonly used in battery charging. (a) The bridge rectifier circuit converts from AC to DC power. (b) The boost converter converts from a lower DC voltage to a higher DC voltage. The two transistors in the boost converter are switched on and off at opposite times; the conversion ratio V_in/V_out is controlled by the duty cycle of the switching.
21. Figure 6.21 Flexible thin film system using PV module and Li Ion battery. (a) Illustration and (b) photograph of the system. (c) Current-voltage characteristics of the PV module under three illumination conditions, corresponding to sunlight (green), and indoor light with high brightness (red) and moderate brightness (blue). (d) Battery voltage curves when charged by the PV module under the same illumination conditions [37].
22. Figure 6.22 Battery charging using printed organic photovoltaic module. (a) Photograph of the photovoltaic module demonstrating its flexibility. (b) Circuit schematic of battery charging. The components in the blue shaded box are contained in a BMS integrated circuit. (c) Voltage profile of a printed Li Ion battery during solar charging. The BMS prevents the battery voltage from increasing beyond 4.1 V, by turning on the transistor labeled “1” to shunt away excess current from the PV module, around the 3.6-hour mark.
23. Figure 6.23 Wearable system with triboelectric generator and Li Ion battery. (a) Illustration of the working mechanism of a textile triboelectric generator using fibers coated with nickel (blue) and parylene (yellow) in contact-separation (C-S) mode. (b–c) Photographs of wearable system including textile triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) and belt containing flexible Li Ion batteries (LIB), used to power a heartbeat meter and transmit heart rate data to a smartphone. (d) Circuit schematic of the system. (e) Voltage profiles of the Li Ion battery during three cycles of charging by the triboelectric nanogenerator and galvanostatic discharging (GD) [23].
24. Figure 6.24 Printed thermoelectric device charging a printed battery. (a) Photograph of the system, consisting of thermoelectric generator, battery, and DC-DC converter. (b) Voltage and (c) current as the battery is charged by the thermoelectric device and discharged through an Ardustat [21].
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Construction principle of a flexographic printing unit.
2. Figure 7.2 Example of a nyloflex® digital photopolymer printing plate manufactured and distributed by Flint Group with detailed view of the raised printing elements. Reproduced with permission of Flint Group Germany GmbH (Stuttgart, Germany).
3. Figure 7.3 Construction principle of a rotogravure printing unit.
4. Figure 7.4 Detail view of a chromium-plated rotogravure printing cylinder with recessed printing elements.
5. Figure 7.5 Basic construction of a conventional offset printing unit.
6. Figure 7.6 Detail view of an offset printing plate with the printing elements (green colored) virtually located on the same layer as the non-printing elements (white area).
7. Figure 7.7 Main elements of a flatbed screen printing unit.
8. Figure 7.8 Geometrical parameters of screen printing meshes.
9. Figure 7.9 Detail view of a screen printing form with a thick film stencil (printing side). Printing elements are characterized as open mesh areas allowing the printing paste to be transferred onto the substrate.
10. Figure 7.10 Fully automated production line for the production and assembly of lithium-ion batteries. Reproduced with permission of Harro Hoefliger Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH (Allmersbach im Tal, Germany).
11. Figure 7.11 Exemplary presentation of two rotary screen printing lines and a sealing unit for the manufacture of zinc-based batteries in stack configuration.
12. Figure 7.12 Schematic drawing of the layered construction principle of a printed sandwich-type battery in stack configuration (single cell).
13. Figure 7.13 Printed electrodes of an NiMH battery (single cell) in stack configuration. The battery is finished after the separator is placed on one electrode followed by defined insertion of the electrolyte, the folding procedure and contact heat sealing of the printed adhesive layer (structured framing).
14. Figure 7.14 Schematic drawing of the layered construction principle of a printed coplanar battery with parallel architecture (single cell).
15. Figure 7.15 Fully printed coplanar zinc-carbon battery (single-cell, ZnCl electrolyte) with an overall thickness of 0.5 mm and the corresponding discharge curve. A capacity of 135.4 mAh was determined during discharge from the open-circuit voltage (OCV) to the cut-off voltage of 1.0 V.
16. Figure 7.16 Construction of a multilayered and paper-based composite substrate (p_e: smart paper type 4) developed and manufactured by Schoeller Technocell GmbH & Co. KG. GSM: Gram per square meter.
17. Figure 7.17 Delamination and electrolytic corrosion of the terminals of a printed NiMH battery with alkaline electrolyte (KOH).
18. Figure 7.18 Confocal laser scanning microscope image of a printed zinc anode layer with the different surface morphologies of the zinc particles clearly visible.
19. Figure 7.19 Manually realized encapsulation of a printed zinc-based battery with a handsealer.
20. Figure 7.20 (a) Ultrasonic welding of two PET films with printed silver tracks being crossed by the seam. Partial damage to the printed silver tracks simulating lead-outs of printed batteries in variable line widths is clearly visible in (b).
21. Figure 7.21 Layout variations of temperature loggers with individual positioning of the antenna and battery to optimize area usage.
22. Figure 7.22 Exemplary data protocol of a functional test of a temperature logger with a printegrated zinc-carbon battery (ZnCl, single cell) which was stored in a freezer.
23. Figure 7.23 Exemplary data protocol of a printed zinc-carbon battery-powered temperature logger (ZnCl, single cell) which was stored in a heating cabinet at elevated temperatures for functional performance testing.
24. Figure 7.24 Battery demonstration of a screen-printed series connection of a primary zinc-carbon battery (alkaline) with a nominal voltage of 30 V consisting of 20 cells. Manufacturing took place during the term of the EU-funded project “Flexibility”, contract number: FP7 – 287568.
Chapter 08
1. Figure 8.1 Main characteristics of printed batteries.
2. Figure 8.2 Current and future applications of printed batteries.

Materials, Technologies and Applications