Table of Contents

Cover

Title

Foreword

About this Book

Introduction

1 Notes on the Theory of Sound

1.1. Basic concepts
1.2. The ears
1.3. The typology of sounds
1.4. Spectral analysis
1.5. Timbre
1.6. Sound propagation
1.7. Conclusion

2 Audio Playback

2.1. History
2.2. Dolby playback standards and specifications
2.3. DTS encodings
2.4. Special encodings
2.5. SDDS
2.6. THX certification
2.7. Multichannel audio recording
2.8. Postproduction and encoding
2.9. Multichannel music media: DVD-Audio and SACD
2.10. Conclusion

3 Types of Effect

3.1. Physical appearance
3.2. Audio processing
3.3. Conclusion

4 Filtering Effects

4.1. Families of filtering effects
4.2. Equalization
4.3. Wah-wah
4.4. Crossover
4.5. Conclusion

5 Modulation Effects

5.1. Flanger
5.2. Phaser
5.3. Chorus
5.4. Rotary, univibe or rotovibe
5.5. Ring modulation
5.6. Final remarks

6 Frequency Effects

6.1. Vibrato
6.2. Transposers
6.3. Conclusion

7 Dynamic Effects

7.1. Compression
7.2. Expanders
7.3. Noise gates
7.4. De-essers
7.5. Saturation
7.6. Exciters and enhancers
7.7. Conclusion

8 Time Effects

8.1. Reverb
8.2. Delay
8.3. Conclusion

9 Unclassifiables

9.1. Combined effects
9.2. Tremolo
9.3. Sound restoration tools
9.4. Loopers
9.5. Time stretching
9.6. Resampling
9.7. Spatialization effects
9.8. Conclusion

Conclusion

Appendices

Appendix 1: Distortion
1. A1.1. Introduction
2. A1.2. Measuring distortion
3. A1.3. Conclusion
Appendix 2: Amplifier Classes
1. A2.1. Introduction
2. A2.2. Class A
3. A2.3. Class B
4. A2.4. Class AB
5. A2.5. Class D
6. A2.6. Class H
7. A2.7. Conclusion
Appendix 3: Introduction to Max/MSP
1. A3.1. Introduction
2. A3.2. How Max works
3. A3.3. Getting started: sine wave oscillator
4. A3.4. Improving your oscillator
5. A3.5. Tremolo, vibrato, reverb and chorus
6. A3.6. Going further
Appendix 4: Multieffects Racks
1. A4.1. Introduction
2. A4.2. Vintage racks
3. A4.3. Modern multieffects racks

Glossary

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

1 Notes on the Theory of Sound

Table 1.1. Table of sound intensities
Table 1.2. The harmonics of (440 Hz)
Table 1.3. Classification of sounds

2 Audio Playback

Table 2.1. Examples of tools for mixing, encoding, decoding, controlling and measuring multichannel 5.1/7.1 Dolby or DTS audio
Table 2.2. Supported sampling frequencies and channels
Table 2.3. Comparison of CDs, SACDs and DVD-As

3 Types of Effect

Table 3.1. Plugins by file extension
Table 3.2. Families of effects

4 Filtering Effects

Table 4.1. Equivalence between octaves and frequencies (* from C to E)
Table 4.2. Examples of each of the three types of equalizer
Table 4.3. Examples of auto-wah and wah-wah pedals
Table 4.4. Examples of crossovers

5 Modulation Effects

Table 5.1. Examples of flangers
Table 5.2. Examples of phasers
Table 5.3. Examples of chorus
Table 5.4. Modern speakers available for purchase⁷
Table 5.5. Models of rotary effects
Table 5.6. Models of ring modulators

6 Frequency Effects

Table 6.1. Examples of vibrato
Table 6.2. Examples of octavers
Table 6.3. Examples of pitch shifters
Table 6.4. The notes generated by the harmonizer to create a third in the same key. The number of semitones depends on the note
Table 6.5. Examples of harmonizers
Table 6.6. Examples of voice processors, vocoders and autotuned effects

7 Dynamic Effects

Table 7.1. Examples of compression pedals, racks (studio) and plugins
Table 7.2. Examples of multiband software compressors
Table 7.3. Examples of standard compression settings for specific instruments
Table 7.4. Examples of software limiters
Table 7.5. Examples of expanders
Table 7.6. Examples of noise gates for guitar
Table 7.7. Examples of de-esser racks and plugins
Table 7.8. Examples of dedicated saturation effects
Table 7.9. Examples of exciters

8 Time Effects

Table 8.1. Sabine absorption coefficients of various materials at different frequencies
Table 8.2. Examples of algorithmic reverb effects by type
Table 8.3. Examples of convolution reverb
Table 8.4. The eight most common types of reverb algorithm
Table 8.5. Example configurations for a selection of sources and styles
Table 8.6. Examples of delay racks and pedals
Table 8.7. Examples of delay plugins

9 Unclassifiables

Table 9.1. Examples of tremolo pedals and plugins
Table 9.2. Examples of audio restoration tools
Table 9.3. Examples of looper pedals
Table 9.4. Examples of dedicated spatializer plugins

Appendix 4: Multieffects Racks

Table A4.1. Examples of vintage multieffects racks
Table A4.2. Examples of modern multieffects racks

List of Illustrations

Introduction

Figure I.1. A replica of the “Telegraphone”, 1915–1918 (Gaylor Ewing collection)
Figure I.2. Brochure presenting the first Ampex tape recorders
Figure I.3. View of a mixing console in the 1960s

1 Notes on the Theory of Sound

Figure 1.1. A simple example of a mechanical wave. Here, the wave is created on the surface of the water after a stone is thrown in
Figure 1.2. Vibrating ruler at the edge of a table
Figure 1.3. Psophometric curve (weighted curve) db(A)
Figure 1.4. Representation of a sound wave and its parameters over time
Figure 1.5. The outer, middle and inner ear
Figure 1.6. Detailed diagram of the middle ear
Figure 1.7. The inner ear
Figure 1.8. The cochlea
Figure 1.9. Cross-section of the cochlea
Figure 1.10. Detailed diagram of the organ of Corti
Figure 1.11. Tonotopy of the cochlear duct and frequency distribution
Figure 1.12. Fletcher–Munson curves (isosonic curves)
Figure 1.13. Principle of sound localization by ITD
Figure 1.14. ITD calculation chart
Figure 1.15. Angular localization error in the horizontal and vertical directions. The sources S1 and S2 (vertical plane) have exactly the same ITD and ILD values as the sources S3 and S4 (horizontal plane)
Figure 1.16. Implementation of HTRF. The source is placed in front of the observer, and its elevation is varied from 0 to 30° relative to the horizontal plane through the observer’s ears
Figure 1.17. The HRTF can distinguish between different heights, unlike the ITD and ILD methods. The curves change as a function of the height of the source relative to the ears of the observer
Figure 1.18. Values of the angular perception errors in the horizontal and vertical directions
Figure 1.19. Demonstration of the precedence effect or Haas effect. If the difference between the sources S1 and S2 is less than 50 ms, the observer cannot perceive a difference between them (no echo)
Figure 1.20. Representation of a periodic sound
Figure 1.21. Representation of an aperiodic sound
Figure 1.22. Representation of white noise
Figure 1.23. Representations of impulses and a continuous sound
Figure 1.24. Combination of multiple simple sounds
Figure 1.25. Spectrum of a periodic complex sound
Figure 1.26. Line spectrum of the sound in Figure 1.22 (intensity in dB)
Figure 1.27. Spectral envelope of a complex aperiodic sound
Figure 1.28. Sonogram of a sound sequence
Figure 1.29. Spectrogram of a sound sequence
Figure 1.30. The transients of the sound of a pipe organ
Figure 1.31. Fundamental range of a flute
Figure 1.32. Fundamental range of a flute compared to its spectral range
Figure 1.33. Spherical dispersion of a wave from a point source. The sound pressure level decreases by 6 dB whenever the distance doubles
Figure 1.34. Interference between two waves on the surface of a liquid
Figure 1.35. Interference between two identical waves (same frequency and amplitude). The sources S1 and S2 emit sound waves that overlap, creating interference (nodes and antinodes)
Figure 1.36. Interference created by a tuning fork
Figure 1.37. Constructive and destructive interference
Figure 1.38. Diffraction of a wave through an opening. The opening in a) is small relative to the wavelength λ, so a new point source is created. The opening in b) is larger than λ, so there is practically no diffraction
Figure 1.39. Circumventing an obstacle smaller than the wavelength
Figure 1.40. Emission of secondary waves at the edges of an obstacle
Figure 1.41. Angles of incidence and reflection of a sound wave (α = β)
Figure 1.42. Reflection of a sound wave on a flat surface and a concave surface
Figure 1.43. Reflection of a sound wave on a wall and image of its source
Figure 1.44. Refraction of a sound wave (α = α’)
Figure 1.45. The beat phenomenon. At a) and b), the signals are in phase, at c), d) and e), they are completely out of phase (antiphase)

2 Audio Playback

Figure 2.1. Edison’s phonograph
Figure 2.2. Poulsen’s “telegraphone” based on a steel wire
Figure 2.3. AEG Magnetophon, 1935
Figure 2.4. Flowchart of a Dolby Surround encoder
Figure 2.5. The Dolby Stereo logo
Figure 2.6. The Dolby Surround logo
Figure 2.7. The Dolby Surround playback symbol
Figure 2.8. The Dolby Surround Pro-Logic logo
Figure 2.9. The Dolby Digital logo
Figure 2.10. The Dolby Digital playback symbol
Figure 2.11. The Dolby Digital logo
Figure 2.12. The Dolby Digital EX playback symbol
Figure 2.13. The three logos of Dolby Surround Pro-Logic II
Figure 2.14. The Dolby Pro Logic IIx and IIz playback symbols
Figure 2.15. The Dolby Digital Plus playback symbol
Figure 2.16. The Dolby TrueHD playback symbol
Figure 2.17. One of the Dolby Atmos playback symbols
Figure 2.18. One example home theater speak configuration for Dolby Atmos 7.1.4 (12 speakers)
Figure 2.19. The DTS logo
Figure 2.20. The DTS playback symbol
Figure 2.21. The DTS Neo 6 logo
Figure 2.22. The DTS ES logo
Figure 2.23. The DTS 96/24 logo
Figure 2.24. DTS HD Master Audio logo
Figure 2.25. The DTS High-Resolution Audio logo
Figure 2.26. The DTS X logo
Figure 2.27. Logo of the SDDS format
Figure 2.28. The logo of THX (Tom Holman eXperiment)
Figure 2.29. The logos of THX Select and Ultra
Figure 2.30. The logo of THX Ultra 2
Figure 2.31. An IRT cross recording setup
Figure 2.32. The DVD-Audio logo
Figure 2.33. The SACD logo
Figure 2.34. Three types of SACDs
Figure 2.35. A hybrid double-layer SACD. The laser beam on the right, with a wavelength of 780 nm, passes through the HD layer, which is transparent to it. The laser beam on the left, with a wavelength of 650 nm, can read the HD layer
Figure 2.36. Logos of the SHM SACD and the DSD–CD

3 Types of Effect

Figure 3.1. Example of a 19-inch audio rack cabinet
Figure 3.2. Captive nuts (or caged nuts) and screws
Figure 3.3. Standard dimensions of a 19-inch rack
Figure 3.4. Three examples of (19”) rack-mountable effects with different heights: “PCM92” reverb by Lexicon (1U), “PE-1C” parametric equalizer by Tube-Tech (2U) and the “Profiler” multieffects processor by Kemper Amps (3U)
Figure 3.5. Fender amp, 65 Deluxe Reverb model (top left), with its effects pedal (top right) for controlling the vibrato and reverb effects. The jack socket for connecting the pedal is visible in the bottom image (“foot switch”)
Figure 3.6. Two pedalboards: the “Pro series Pedalboards” by Trailer Trash and the “BCB-60” by Boss
Figure 3.7. Effects pedals with lever-and-switch systems. A wah-wah pedal “V847” by Vox (top). The rack-and-pinion, potentiometer and the actuator switch are visible under the footrest. An echo-delay pedal “Memory Man with Hazarai” by Electro Harmonix (bottom). It has two switches and various knobs for settings.
Figure 3.8. Example of a multieffects rack designed for guitar, with a control pedal. This model is the G-sharp by TC Electronic
Figure 3.9. A rack for emulating amplifiers and effects, the “Eleven” model by Avid. It can be used either in the studio or live directly with guitars or other instruments. Below it is a control pedal compatible with the MIDI standard, the “Ground Control Pro” by Voodoo Lab.

4 Filtering Effects

Figure 4.1. Bode plot of a first-order low-pass filter. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 4.2. Equalization curves of a bell correction and a Baxandall correction. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 4.3. Range of instruments as a function of frequency (top) compared to the notes on a keyboard (bottom) (source: IRN³ (www.independentrecording.net)). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 4.4. Opal FCS-966, a 31-band graphic equalizer by BSS Audio
Figure 4.5. Orban 622B, a 2 × 4-band parametric equalizer
Figure 4.6. The well-known passive equalizer EQP-1A by Pultec
Figure 4.7. The Aphex EQF-2 equalizer and a more recent modernized version, the Aphex EQF-500 model
Figure 4.8. An example of a band-stop (notch) filter on a sound reinforcement system
Figure 4.9. “Linear Phase EQ”, a linear phase software equalizer by Waves
Figure 4.10. The parametric equalizer “Lil Freq EL-Q” by Empirical Labs. This equalizer includes a dynamic equalization feature
Figure 4.11. The dynamic software equalizer “Dynamic EQ PowerCore” by TC Electronic
Figure 4.12. Seven-band, 2-channel digital studio equalizer, EQ1 model by Weiss
Figure 4.13. Integrated parametric filters on a mixing desk
Figure 4.14. The three-position MRB EFFECTS switch (right) used in the first Vox amplifiers
Figure 4.15. Two versions of the Vox wah-wah pedal, the “Vox Wah-Wah” and the “Cry-Baby”
Figure 4.16. A “wah-wah” mute designed for a trumpet
Figure 4.17. Frequency response of a classic wah-wah pedal. The three curves (red, blue and green) represent the filtering and amplification of each region of the sound spectrum depending on the position of the pedal, from the up position to the down position. The spectrum slides from left to right as the pedal is lowered. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 4.18. The famous Mu-Tron III auto-wah pedal, an early model from the 1970s
Figure 4.19. The three typical curves of a 3-way crossover (blue: bass; green: mid; red: treble), showing the gain as a function of the frequency. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 4.20. Front (top) and rear (bottom) of an active 2- or 3-way crossover, the AC 23S by Rane. At the rear, we can see one input and three outputs for each of the two channels

5 Modulation Effects

Figure 5.1. The method invented by W. Kendrick for creating the flanger effect. The position of the screwdriver controls the extent of the flanging (buckling) of the tape, allowing the recording on one track to be shifted relative to the other. In the high position, the two recordings are further apart; in the low position, they are closer together. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 5.2. Flowchart of the flanger effect
Figure 5.3. The influence of the delay time as a function of the frequency when summing sine waves. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 5.4. Three flanger pedals: “BF-3” by Boss, “Vortex” by TC Electronic and “Micro Flanger” by MXR
Figure 5.5. The “MetaFlanger” plugin by Waves, with its various settings
Figure 5.6. Flowchart of the phaser effect
Figure 5.7. Three phaser pedals: Moog MF-103, Boss PH-1 and MXR Phase 100
Figure 5.8. The “Blue Cat’s Phaser” plugin
Figure 5.9. Flowchart of the chorus effect
Figure 5.10. Three chorus pedals: “Small Clone” by Electro Harmonix, “Stereo Chorus” by MXR and “Corona Chorus” by TC Electronic
Figure 5.11. Exterior and interior view of a Leslie speaker, 122 model
Figure 5.12. Two generations of Leslie speakers: The first model – 30 A (1940) with tubes, and the 760 model with transistors (solid-state – 1970s)
Figure 5.13. A “Combo” preamplifier pedal manufactured by Leslie
Figure 5.14. Diagram of a Leslie speaker
Figure 5.15. The Doppler effect
Figure 5.16. Leslie speaker clones: Sharma, Echolette, Dynacord and Elka
Figure 5.17. Four rotary effects pedals: “Rototron” by Pigtronix, “Leslie Digital” and “RT-20” by Boss, and “Lex” by Strymon
Figure 5.18. Positioning of microphones to record a Leslie speaker
Figure 5.19. Ring modulation by multiplication (left) and with snap-off diodes (right)
Figure 5.20. Principle of a ring modulator. The top spectrum analyzer shows a 600-Hz triangle wave. The bottom one shows the output of the ring modulator after combining with a 200-Hz sine wave. The middle panel shows the ring modulator and the spectrum analyzer (in Ableton Live). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip

6 Frequency Effects

Figure 6.1. Principle of the vibrato
Figure 6.2. The “MVibrato” plugin by MeldaProduction
Figure 6.3. Three models of vibrato pedal: “Viper” by T-Rex, “VB-2w” by Boss and “NuVibe” by Korg
Figure 6.4. The pedal “Octavia” by Tycobrahe, a commercial version of the pedal used by Jimi Hendrix, marketed in the 1970s
Figure 6.5. Three models of octaver pedal: “Whammy” by Digitech, “Super Octaver OC-3” by Boss and “Octavio JH-OC1” by Dunlop
Figure 6.6. Three pitch-shifter pedals: “Pitch Fork” by Electro Harmonix, “PS-5” by Boss and “Particle” by Red Panda
Figure 6.7. The H910 harmonizer by Eventide (1975–1984)
Figure 6.8. Three harmonizer pedals: “AHAR-3” by Tom’s Line Engineering, “Harmonist PS-6” by Boss and “Harmony” by Hotone Audio
Figure 6.9. Antares Auto-Tune Version 3 for DirectX, Windows. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 6.10. The “Voder” invented by Homer Dudley
Figure 6.11. Sixteen-channel vocoder by Moog
Figure 6.12. Version 8 of the Auto-Tune plugin by Antares. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 6.13. Four voice processors: “Perform-V” by TC-Helicon, “SVC-350” by Roland, “TA-1VP” by Tascam and “VE-2” by Boss
Figure 6.14. The opening window of the Antares Auto-Tune 8 plugin. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 6.15. Top ribbon of Auto-Tune 8
Figure 6.16. PITCH CORRECTION CONTROL settings
Figure 6.17. Group for selecting notes and modes
Figure 6.18. Auto-Tune’s graphical editing mode for making extremely fine adjustments to vocals. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 6.19. Apps: Auto-Tune by Antares (left) and Voice Synth by Qneo (right) for iOS. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip

7 Dynamic Effects

Figure 7.1. Drawmer 1973 studio compressor
Figure 7.2. The software compressor “Ozone 7 Vintage Compressor” by Izotrope. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.3. Graph of the output level as a function of the ratio (x:y), the threshold (s) and the input level (n_i). Given a ratio of 2:1, a threshold of 10 dB and an n_i of 20 dB, the output level is 15 dB. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.4. Attack and release during compression. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.5. Example of compression illustrating its parameters. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.6. The shape of the compression curve with hard and soft knee
Figure 7.7. The effect of the rotation point. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.8. Four well-known studio compressors (from top to bottom): LA-2A by Universal Audio (optical compressor), 609CA by Vintech and 1176 by Urei/JBL (FET compressors) and a Manley tube compressor
Figure 7.9. Diagram of the principle of a multiband compressor. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.10. The high-end digital dynamic studio rack compressor/limiter “Gambit DS1-MK2” by Weiis. This compressor is wideband, multiband and parallel (see section 7.1.6)
Figure 7.11. The multiband software compressor (3) Drawner 1973 by Softube
Figure 7.12. Principle of parallel compression. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.13. The software limiter L1 by Waves with its straightforward features (threshold, ceiling, release)
Figure 7.14. The software limiter LM-662 by Nomad Factory, a tool with more sophisticated parameters
Figure 7.15. Principle of an expander. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.16. The DBX 1074, a studio noise gate
Figure 7.17. Principle of the noise gate. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.18. Principle of a noise gate with a hold parameter. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.19. Hysteresis in the context of an audio signal (input level) using a noise gate (top, without hysteresis; bottom, with hysteresis)
Figure 7.20. Four noise gate pedals (from left to right): “Noise Terminator” by Carl Martin; “The Silencer” by Electro Harmonix; “Sentry” by TC Electronic; “M195” by MXR
Figure 7.21. The famous studio de-esser by SPL
Figure 7.22. Filter and compressor setup equivalent to a de-esser. The filter is often connected to an amp that increases sibilance to improve the compression. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.23. Diagram showing the principle of a de-esser. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.24. Effect of saturation on an audio signal, with slight and heavy clipping. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 7.25. The model MA100H Marshall amp with overdrive settings (in the center of the control panel – magnified below)
Figure 7.26. Three different types of pedal: “Big Muff” by Electro Harmonix (fuzz), “Tube Screamer” by Ibanez (overdrive) and “Distortion DS-1” by Boss (distortion)
Figure 7.27. The famous “Aural Exciter” by Aphex
Figure 7.28. Two modern rack enhancers: the “Sonic Maximizer 882i” by BBE and the “Exciter” model by Aphex

8 Time Effects

Figure 8.1. Examples of possible trajectories (dotted lines) for the reflections of a sound wave in a room, creating reverberation
Figure 8.2. One of the reverb chambers at Abbey Road Studios. You can see the cylindrical diffusors at the back of the room. The speaker that plays the sound can be seen in the foreground
Figure 8.3. Acoustics Research Society Dresden, reverb chamber with multiple diffusors
Figure 8.4. “Peg O’ My Heart” by the “Harmonicats”
Figure 8.5. The service manual of the EMT 140 (left) and several operational EMT 140 units (right)
Figure 8.6. A reverb “necklace” placed inside the amplification cabinet of a Hammond organ
Figure 8.7. The famous Hammond spring reverb, Accutronics type 4 model. This system became an industry standard
Figure 8.8. The famous EMT 250 digital reverb
Figure 8.9. The Lexicon 224 digital reverb
Figure 8.10. The 480L reverb unit by Lexicon
Figure 8.11. The SONY DRE-S777 reverb effects processor
Figure 8.12. The Altiverb reverb plugin by Audio Ease
Figure 8.13. The EMT 240 (produced in 1972), whose plate includes a 30 × 30 cm gold sheet that is 0.018 mm thick. Its outer dimensions are 64 × 30 × 62.5 cm, and it weighs 67 kg
Figure 8.14. Principle of plate reverberation. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.15. Two mechanisms for controlling the reverb time: manual (left) and motorized (right)
Figure 8.16. Diagram of the amplification system of the EMT 140 TS
Figure 8.17. Principle of spring reverberation. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.18. Close-up of the sensors and transducers. You can see the springs, the coil and its air gap, and the two magnets (right) in between. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.19. The electronics of the “Vibraverb” amplifier by Fender. This was one of the first amps (1963) to incorporate spring reverb (bottom image)
Figure 8.20. Principle of an acoustic duct. By placing multiple microphones at different points along the duct, we obtain reverbs with different durations. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.21. The famous Roland echo chamber “Space Echo RE-201” manufactured between 1974 and 1990. Its looping magnetic tape system is visible in the bottom left image, and its write head and four read heads can be seen in the bottom right image
Figure 8.22. The electronic tube echo chamber “Echorec” (1962) by Binson. You can see the plate surrounded by multiple heads, with a rubber drive wheel (in the center). In the middle of the controls, you can see a magic green eye. This controls the volume of the audio signal
Figure 8.23. Three main components of reverb. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.24. Example configuration of a reverb plugin, the “Renaissance Reverberator” by Waves. This plugin includes most of the parameters listed in this section: damping, predelay, time, size, diffusion, decay, early reflections, mix (wet/dry), with various curves, equalization, reverb damping and the overall shape of the reverb (in the center). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.25. Another example of reverb settings, this time the “LexRoom” by Lexicon. This plugin also includes many of the most common parameters. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.26. A third example of the configuration of a plugin. This time, “VintageVerb” by Valhalla. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.27. Another plugin by LEXICON, “Plate” reverb in LXP Native
Figure 8.28. The “Altiverb 7 XL” plugin by Audio Ease for convolution reverb. There are few parameters, but the most common parameters are still present: time, damping, predelay, mix, etc. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.29. Four example setups for recording a mono signal (there are many others): one speaker and one microphone facing each other; one speaker and one microphone facing away from each other; one speaker and one microphone facing in the same direction; one speaker and one microphone facing in the other direction. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.30. Four example setups for recording a stereo signal (many others are possible): two speakers and two microphones facing each other (stage – audience); two speakers and two microphones facing away from each other; two speakers and two microphones facing in the same directions; two speakers and two microphones facing in the other directions. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.31. Two examples setups for recording five-channel surround: five speakers and five microphones facing each other and five speakers and five microphones facing in the same directions. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.32. The waveforms are two impulse response files from a stereo recording. The top and bottom are the left and right channels, respectively. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.33. Stereo audio file opened with Adobe Audition CC ready to add reverb. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.34. IR-1 plugin window (in this example, the type is mono/stereo). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.35. The prompt for selecting the sine sweep recordings. In the example, you can see the two files “SSL.wav” and “SSR.wav” in the newly created “IR Sine Sweep” folder. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.36. Saving the file (.xps) containing the preset for your new reverb effect (in this example, the file has been given the name “My Office IR.xps”). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.37. Saving the new preset, here “Office reverb”. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.38. The new preset “Office reverb” in the folder “IR Sine Sweep” that was created in an earlier step. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.39. Creating an audio project in Logic Pro X
Figure 8.40. Opening the “Impulse Response Utility”
Figure 8.41. The Impulse Response Utility
Figure 8.42. Testing the level (−12.9 dB) at a frequency of 10 kHz on channel 1. The level monitors (green and yellow) of both channels are shown. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.43. The waveform of the recorded sine sweep and the dialog box for saving it. Track 1 is locked in the table. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.44. The impulse response (IR) obtained by deconvolution
Figure 8.45. Audio test window
Figure 8.46. Saving the IR, here with filename “MySWP”
Figure 8.47. Our newly created reverb, given the name “MySWP” in this example, viewed in “Space designer” within Apple Logic Pro X
Figure 8.48. The “TrueVerb” plugin by Waves. The bottom graph shows the frequency response curve of the damping. In this example, the damping is configured to increase the reverb time by 1.40× (140%) at 400 Hz (bass frequencies) and reduce the reverb time by 0.42× (42%) at 6,800 Hz (treble frequencies). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 8.49. The famous Ampex 350 recorder
Figure 8.50. The famous “Memory Man” pedal by Electro Harmonix, one of the first ever analog delay pedals (delay time: max 300 ms)
Figure 8.51. The digital delay DM1000 by Ibanez, released in the early 1980s. It has a maximum delay of 900 ms
Figure 8.52. A modern digital delay pedal, the DD-500 by Boss. This pedal has a very wide range of possibilities. It can even emulate digital delays from the 1980s
Figure 8.53. The plugins PSP 42 and PSP 84 by AudioWare, inspired by the famous PCM 42 delay by Lexicon
Figure 8.54. The Manny Marroquin plugin by Waves, a very sophisticated delay effect that includes reverb, distortion, phaser and a doubler
Figure 8.55. The H-Delay plugin by Waves with filters, LFO, and a ping-pong delay function (top center)
Figure 8.56. The stereo Revox A77 MkIV recorder, manufactured from 1974 to 1977
Figure 8.57. A speed regulator made by Revox for the B77 model recorder
Figure 8.58. The various controls of the Revox A77. From left to right on the bottom row: volume and mono/stereo dial, balance and MONITOR dial, recording track 1 and the dial for selecting its source, and recording track 2 with the dial for selecting its source. In the top right, you can also see the REC CHI and REC CHII recording buttons on either side of the two VU level meters.

9 Unclassifiables

Figure 9.1. Three fuzzwha pedals: (from left to right) “Fuzzwha” by Colorsound, “M2 Cliff Burton” by Morley and “FuWah” by Mooer
Figure 9.2. Three octafuzz pedals (from left to right): “Octafuzz” by Fulltone, “Octapussy” by Catalinbread and “SF01 Slash Octave Fuzz” by MXR
Figure 9.3. First solution for creating shimmer. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 9.4. The famous “Crystal Shimmer” by Bill Ruppert, using only pedals manufactured by Electro Harmonix. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 9.5. Shimmer created with “Guitar Rig”. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 9.6. Four pedals with shimmer effects (from left to right): “Reverburg” by Mugig, “blueSky” by Strymon, “Space Reverb” by MAK Crazy Sound Technology and “Seraphim Mono Shimmer” by Neunaber Technology
Figure 9.7. The DeArmond tremolo (model 601) manufactured by ROWE Industries from 1946 onwards. On the right, part of the internal mechanism, showing the conical axis of the motor, the wheel and the cylindrical container filled with electrolytic liquid
Figure 9.8. The Storytone piano
Figure 9.9. The “Tremolux” amp by Fender and the “Falcon” by Gibson
Figure 9.10. Three tremolo pedals (from left to right): the “Supa-Trem2” model by Fulltone, the “TR-2” model by Boss and the “Super Pulsar” model by Electro Harmonix
Figure 9.11. The results of applying a declicker: the clicks in the shaded region are detected, eliminated and replaced by a synthesized signal (in green). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 9.12. Top, a clipped audio signal. Bottom, the same signal after processing with a declipper
Figure 9.13. Sound restoration racks (from top to bottom): three racks by Cedar, the “DNA-1” model by Weiss and a very popular model, the “SNR2000” denoiser by Behringer
Figure 9.14. Three looper pedals (from left to right): The “JamMan Looper” model by Digitech, the “Ditto Looper” model by TC Electronic and the “22500” model by Electro Harmonix
Figure 9.15. A looper pedal placed before a fuzz pedal
Figure 9.16. A looper pedal placed after a fuzz pedal
Figure 9.17. A looper pedal placed between several other effects
Figure 9.18. Connecting an instrument and a looper pedal to an amp with an effects loop
Figure 9.19. An audio signal with a duration of 2.1 s (top) after applying 1.5× time stretching, resulting in a duration of 3.15 s (bottom). The red and blue boxes show the equivalence between time scales: 2.0 s -> 3.0 s (in yellow) (the editor is Adobe Audition CC). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 9.20. Resampling a 48-kHz 24-bit audio file with the software editor Sound Forge Pro. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure 9.21. IRCAM SPAT 3, a very powerful spatializer. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip

Appendix 1: Distortion

Figure A1.1. Example of a frequency response curve
Figure A1.2. Illustration of how an input signal acquires noise
Figure A1.3. Representation of a signal S partially obscured by noise N. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure A1.4. Input signal
Figure A1.5. Output signal with distortion (in red)
Figure A1.6. Transformation of a signal composed of two complex out-of-phase waveforms (red and green). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip

Appendix 3: Introduction to Max/MSP

Figure A3.1. The main window of MAX (version 7)
Figure A3.2. The horizontal toolbar
Figure A3.3. An OBJECT block with the “cycle˜” function, i.e. a sinusoidal oscillator
Figure A3.4. The two blocks are now connected. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/reveillac/soundeffects.zip
Figure A3.5. After moving the MESSAGE blocks into position
Figure A3.6. The audio output block is now connected
Figure A3.7. Your patcher, working and locked
Figure A3.8. The oscillator with an added graph (oscilloscope) for visualization
Figure A3.9. Our oscillator, now with a loadbang object (top left)
Figure A3.10. Example of a tremolo
Figure A3.11. Example of a vibrato
Figure A3.12. Reverb effect. This effect records the sound of your voice using your computer’s microphone (by default)
Figure A3.13. Chorus based on the previous patcher. The chorus records the sound of your voice using your computer’s microphone (by default)

First published 2018 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd
27-37 St George’s Road
London SW19 4EU
UK

www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2018
The rights of Jean-Michel Réveillac to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017954678

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-131-4

Foreword

What will music look like in the future?

If you are wondering about the building blocks of the music of tomorrow, or if you wish to understand them, this book will prove a valuable “toolbox”. Jean Michel Réveillac introduces us to the myriad of sounds effects of the world of music. He weaves implicit threads between the art of sound and the history of science, allowing us to appreciate how digital effects influence the typology and morphology of physical waves.

The materials that will be used by the sound architects of our future are playback images, colors, matter and expressions. The possibilities of sound effect processing afford a glimpse into a universe of infinite and unsuspected dimensions of human hearing. By chronologically and thematically exploring these physical phenomena, Jean Michel Réveillac not only reveals the path, but delicately retraces the resources and techniques of the scientific, philosophical and sociological tradition in which the history of these technologies is steeped. The transmitted codes of electronic music have made space for sound objects, creating a certain anatomy of sound, and many other musical movements have also drawn inspiration from various applied effects.

The breakthrough transition to a fully digital world is uprooting the traditions of analog processing. The increasing capabilities of DAWs¹ and 5.1 multichannel mixing are challenging the old trades and customs of applied effects. Music itself is a canvas for composers to shape according to their desires of expression by sound narration, and digital audio tools are a palette for virtual modeling. Today, sound occupies a permanent place within our environment. Jean Michel Réveillac revisits the original historical approaches enriched with the knowledge of digital audio processing. By broadening its field of investigation, the history of sound effects has carved its role in how we understand the challenges of modern sound. This book upholds the quality of its scientific roots and the relevance of its forays into audio research. After exploring the wealth of knowledge on musical processing present in this book, we are left with no doubt that a summary of modern research into the history of sound effects was sorely needed.

As if set in stone, the chosen approach conveys the timelessness of mixing techniques and colors, forging an eternal record of the methodology of recent years. Leaving us with the feeling that this was just the beginning of a journey to the heart of a perpetually expanding culture. Many of the sound effects presented in this book are currently extremely popular, with multiple areas of application. Chapter by chapter, the singular vision of a constantly evolving landscape of audio effects gradually emerges. With great passion, the author retraces the greatest events in the history of sound effects and the key theoretical ideas that accompanied them, and offers his own thoughts on the origin of this universe that has drawn him ever deeper, as well as the impact and future of technological advancements that will allow everyone to leave their own mark on the evolution of sound.

Léo PAOLETTI
“Leo Virgile”
Composer and audio designer

About this Book

If you are wondering whether this book is for you, how it is put together and organized, what it contains and which conventions we will use, you are in the right place. Everything will be explained here.

Target audience

This book is intended for anybody who is passionate about sound – amateurs or professionals who love sound recording, mixing or playback, and, of course, musicians, performers and composers.

The topics discussed in a few sections require some basic knowledge of the principles of general computing and digital audio.

You need to be familiar with operating systems (paths, folders and directories, files, filenames, file extensions, copying, dragging, etc.) and you need to know how to use a digital audio editor like Adobe Audition, Steinberg Wavelab, Magix Sound Forge, Audacity, etc., or a DAW (Digital Audio Workstation) such as Avid Pro Tools, Magix Samplitude, Sonar Cakewalk, Apple Logic Pro and so on.

Organization and contents

This book has nine chapters:

– Notes on the Theory of Sound;
– Audio Playback;
– Types of Effects;
– Filtering Effects;
– Modulation Effects;
– Frequency Effects;
– Dynamic Effects;
– Time Effects;
– Unclassifiables.

Each of these chapters can be read separately. Some concepts depend on concepts from other chapters, but references are given wherever they are needed. The first chapter, dedicated to the theory of sound, is slightly different. It provides the basic foundations needed to understand each of the other chapters.

If you are new to the scene, I highly recommend reading the first chapter. The rest of the book will be easier to understand.

Even if you are not, it might still surprise you with a few new ideas.

The conclusion, unsurprisingly, attempts to give an overview of the current state of the world of sound effects, and how they might continue to develop in future.

Appendices 1–4 discuss a few extra ideas and reminders in the following order:

– Distortion;
– Classes of Amplifiers;
– Basics with Max/MSP;
– Multieffect Racks.

A bibliography and a list of Internet links can be found at the end of the book.

There is also a glossary explaining some of the logos, acronyms and terminology specific to sound effects, sound recording, mixing and playback.

Conventions

The following formatting conventions are used throughout the book:

– italics: indicates the first time that an important term is used. For example, this could be one of the words explained in the glossary at the end of the book, mathematical terms, comments, equations, formulas or variables;
– (italics): terms written in languages other than English;
– CAPS: names of windows, icons, buttons, folders or directories, menus or submenus. This also includes elements, options or controls in the windows of a software program.

Additional remarks are identified by the keyword.

REMARK.– These comments supplement the explanations given in the main body of the text.

All figures and tables have explanatory captions.

Vocabulary and definitions

Like all specialized techniques, audio sound effects have their own vocabulary. Some of the words, acronyms, abbreviations, logos and proper nouns may not be familiar to all readers. The glossary mentioned earlier should help with these terms.

Acknowledgments

I would especially like to thank the team at ISTE and my editor, Chantal Ménascé, for placing their trust in me. I am greatly indebted to the composer and musician Léo Paoletti, known by his stage name “Leo Virgile,” for the time, attention and interest he has granted me, as well as for writing the foreword to this book.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Vanna, for never ceasing to support me as I wrote these pages.

Musical Sound Effects

Analog and Digital Sound Processing

Foreword

About this Book

Target audience

Organization and contents

Conventions

Vocabulary and definitions

Acknowledgments