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The Blackwell Guide to Research Methods in Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Edited by Li Wei and Melissa G. Moyer

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List of Figures

1.1 Concept Mediation Model

1.2 Lexical Association Model

1.3 Revised Hierarchical Model

1.4 Language mode

2.1 Basic research tasks

3.1 Continuum for data collection

7.1 English lexical decision: Is the string of letters a real word in English?

7.2 The eye-tracking paradigm used to study cross-language activation in spoken word recognition

7.3 The cross-language picture-word Stroop task

7.4 How VOT is measured

7.5 Eye-movement records while Spanish-English speakers read a structurally ambiguous sentence

8.1 Topographic scalp distribution of the semantic N400-effect

8.2 The subtraction method in functional neuroimaging experiments

8.3 Brain activity patterns during grammatical processing and semantic processing

11.1 The location of transcription in the research process

11.2 Required information to be included with transcription

15.1 Society as social networks

15.2 Structural patterns of different kinds of social networks

15.3 Comparison of two individuals’ networks

List of Tables

6.1 Possible combinations of four research study designs

8.1 Summary of brain-imaging techniques

9.1 Possible themes for a questionnaire on bilingualism

12.1 Factorial design crossing L2 proficiency and cognate status

12.2 Accuracy data (%) for the sample experiment crossing L2 proficiency and cognate status

13.1 Differences between monolingual and bilingual corpora

13.2 Annotating code-switching

Notes on Contributors

Jubin Abutalebi, MD (abutalebi.jubin@hsr.it), is a cognitive neurologist and Assistant Professor of Neuropsychology at the Faculty of Psychology, University Vita Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy. His main research activities focus on the cerebral architecture underlying bilingualism which he studies by employing functional neuroimaging techniques. He is author of many journal articles and co-editor of two forthcoming books: Neuropsychological Research: A Review (Psychology Press) and Cognitive Neurology (Oxford University Press).

Ad Backus, PhD (A.M.Backus@uvt.nl), is Associate Professor in the Department of Language and Culture at Tilburg University, The Netherlands, and a member of the Babylon research group, which specializes in the study of multiculturalism and multilingualism. His empirical work has mostly been on Turkish-Dutch code-switching and contact-induced language change in the immigrant variety of Turkish. Most analyses are done within a cognitive-linguistic theoretical framework. He publishes widely in journals such as Linguistics, the International Journal of Bilingualism, and Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.

Adrian Blackledge, PhD (A.J.Blackledge@bham.ac.uk), is Professor of Bilingualism at the School of Education, University of Birmingham, UK. His main areas of research are multilingualism and social justice in linguistic minority settings, and discourse and power in multilingual contexts. His publications include Teaching Bilingual Children (Trentham Books, 1994), Literacy, Power, and Social Justice (Trentham Books, 2000), and Discourse and Power in a Multilingual World (John Benjamins, 2005). He has also co-edited two volumes: Multilingualism, Second Language Learning, and Gender (with Aneta Pavlenko, Ingrid Piller, and Marya Teutsch-Dwyer, Mouton De Gruyter, 2001) and Negotiation of Identities in Multilingual Contexts (with Aneta Pavlenko, Multilingual Matters, 2004).

Holly Cashman, PhD (holly.cashman@asu.edu), is Assistant Professor of Spanish Linguistics in the School of International Letters and Cultures at Arizona State University, USA. Her main research interests include code-switching, bilingual conversation, identity in interaction, and variation in Spanish in southwestern USA. She is currently co-editing (with Ashley Williams) a special issue of Multilingua on the emergence of bilingual identity in interaction, and she has authored articles in several journals including the Journal of Pragmatics, the Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, and the Journal of Politeness Research.

Ignasi Clemente, PhD (iclemente@mednet.ucla.edu), is a postdoctoral research fellow in the Department of Pediatrics, D. Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, USA, and an international trainee in the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Strategic Training Program on Pain in Child Health. His main research interests include the sociocultural and communicative aspects of pain and suffering, health communication and shared decision-making in pediatric care, and embodied communication in multilingual settings. In his PhD dissertation, he examined how Spanish- and Catalan-speaking patients, parents, and doctors negotiated the limits of uncertainty and non-disclosure throughout unpredictable cancer trajectories at a hospital in Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain).

Eva Codó, PhD (eva.codo@uab.es), is Lecturer in English and Linguistics at both the Faculty of Education and the Faculty of Arts of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain. Her main research interests include multilingualism in institutional settings, language, immigration and processes of social exclusion, and the sociolinguistics of English as a contact language in Spain. She is author of the book Immigration and Bureaucratic Control: Language Practices in the Public Administration (Mouton de Gruyter, in press).

Annabelle David, PhD (annabelle.david@ncl.ac.uk), is a Research Associate at Newcastle University, UK. Her main research interests include second and bilingual language acquisition, especially of vocabulary. She also has an interest in the use of digital technologies to facilitate L2 research. She has recently finished her doctoral thesis and published in the International Journal of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education.

Pasquale Anthony Della Rosa (dellarosa.pasquale@hsr.it) is a PhD student at the Department of Psycholinguistics of the University of Geneva, Switzerland and holds a junior research fellowship at the University Vita Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy. He is actively working in the field of functional neuroimaging and masters all technical knowledge for acquiring, analyzing, and interpreting functional brain data.

Paola Dussias, PhD (pdussias@psu.edu), is Associate Professor of Spanish, Linguistics and Psychology at Penn State University, USA. Her main research interests include sentence comprehension processes in bilingual speakers and second language learners, and the use of experimental techniques to study psycholinguistic processes involving code-switched utterances. Her work has appeared in Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, the International Journal of Bilingualism, and Handbook of Bilingualism.

Penelope Gardner-Chloros, PhD (p.gardner-chloros@bbk.ac.uk), is Lecturer in the School of Languages, Linguistics and Culture at Birkbeck, University of London, UK. Her main research interests include code-switching, language contact, and terms of address in European languages. She is the author of Code-switching (Cambridge University Press, 2008), Language Selection and Switching in Strasbourg (Oxford University Press, 1991), co-editor of Vernacular Literacy: A Re-evaluation (Oxford University Press, 1997), and a founding member of the LIPPS Group, which has set up a database of bilingual texts for researchers (see Special Issue, International Journal of Bilingualism, 4(2) June 2000).

Chip Gerfen, PhD (cgerfen@gmail.com), is Associate Professor of Linguistics and Spanish Linguistics at Penn State University, USA. His main research interests include phonology, experimental linguistics, psycholinguistics, and bilingualism. He is the author of Phonology and Phonetics in Coatzospan Mixtec (Kluwer, 1999) and has published in journals such as Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, and the Journal of Phonetics.

Monica Heller, PhD (mheller@oise.utoronto.ca), is Professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Canada. Her main research interests concern bilingualism, ethnography, globalization, and linguistic minorities, with a focus on francophone Canada. Her most recent publications include (as editor) Bilingualism: A Social Approach (Palgrave, 2007) and (co-edited with A. Duchêne) Discourses of Endangerment: Ideology and Interest in the Defense of Languages (Continuum, 2007). She has published articles in such journals as the Journal of Sociolinguistics, Langage et Société, and Language in Society.

Judith Kroll, PhD (jfk7@psu.edu), is Distinguished Professor of Psychology, Linguistics, and Women’s Studies and Co-Director of the Center for Language Science at Pennsylvania State University, USA. The research that she and her students pursue concerns the acquisition, comprehension, and production of words in two languages during second language learning and in proficient bilingual performance. She served as a co-editor of Bilingualism: Language and Cognition from its founding in 1997 until 2001 and as its coordinating editor from 2001 to 2002. Together with Annette de Groot she co-edited Tutorials in Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Perspectives (Erlbaum, 1997) and the Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches (Oxford University Press, 2005). She is a member of the editorial boards of the International Journal of Bilingualism, the Journal of Memory and Language, the Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, and Psychological Science.

Elizabeth Lanza, PhD (elizabeth.lanza@iln.uio.no), is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, University of Oslo, Norway. Her main research interests are in sociolinguistic approaches to the study of multilingualism, including discourse/conversation analysis, social network analysis, language ideology, and identity in language socialization. She is author of Language Mixing in Infant Bilingualism: A Sociolinguistic Perspective (Oxford University Press, 1997/2004) and numerous book chapters and articles in journals such as the International Journal of Bilingualism and the Journal of Child Language.

Li Wei, PhD (li.wei@bbk.ac.uk), is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the School of Languages, Linguistics and Culture, Birkbeck, University of London, UK. His main research interests are in BAMFLA (bilingual and multilingual first language acquisition), code-switching, language choice and language shift, and cross-cultural pragmatics. He is author of Three Generations, Two Languages, One Family (Multilingual Matters, 1994) and editor of the bestselling volume The Bilingualism Reader (Routledge, 2000/2007). He has also co-edited Handbook of Multilingualism and Multilingual Communication (Mouton de Gruyter, 2007), Language Learning and Teaching as Social Inter-Action (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), Bilingualism: Beyond Basic Principles (Multilingual Matters, 2003), and Opportunities and Challenges of Bilingualism (Mouton de Gruyter, 2002). He has been the Principal Editor of the International Journal of Bilingualism since 1997.

Melissa G. Moyer, PhD (melissa.moyer@uab.es), is Associate Professor of English Linguistics at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain. Her research interests include multilingualism and migration in institutional contexts, sociolinguistics, and language contact. She has published numerous articles and book chapters on these topics. She is author of the award-winning book La cárcel de las palabras: Ensayo sobre el lenguaje y la desigualdad social (1988, with J. M. de Miguel). Her most recent work, in collaboration with Luisa Martin Rojo, is “Language, Migration and Citizenship: New Challenges in the Regulation of Bilingualism,” in M. Heller (ed.) Bilingualism: A Social Approach (Palgrave, 2007).

Jacomine Nortier, PhD (Jacomine.Nortier@let.uu.nl), is Associate Professor at the Department of Dutch Language and Culture and the Research Institute of Linguistics UiL-OTS, Utrecht University, The Netherlands. Her main areas of research interest are multilingualism, code-switching, and sociolinguistics. Her publications include Dutch-Moroccan Arabic Code Switching among Moroccans in the Netherlands (Foris, 1990), and Murks en Straattaal. Vriendschap en taalgebruik onder jongeren (Prometheus, 2001).

Aneta Pavlenko, PhD (apavlenk@temple.edu), is Associate Professor at the College of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, USA. Her research focuses on the relationship between language, emotions, and cognition in bilingualism and second language acquisition. She is the author of Emotions and Multilingualism (Cambridge University Press, 2005), winner of the 2006 BAAL Book Prize; the editor of Bilingual Minds: Emotional Experience, Expression, and Representation (Multilingual Matters, 2006), and co-editor with A. Blackledge, I. Piller and M. Teutsch Dwyer of Multilingualism, Second Language Learning, and Gender (Mouton De Gruyter, 2001), with B. Norton of Gender and English Language Learners (TESOL, 2004), and with A. Blackledge of Negotiation of Identities in Multilingual Contexts (Multilingual Matters, 2004). Her work has also appeared in edited volumes and numerous scientific journals.

Tony Purvis, PhD (tony.purvis@ncl.ac.uk), is Lecturer in Media and Cultural Studies, in the School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences at Newcastle University, UK. His main research interests include media analysis, cultural theory, and psychoanalytic criticism. He is author of Media and Cultural Studies (Edinburgh University Press, 2006) and co-author of Television Drama: Theories and Identities (Palgrave, 2006), and has published articles in scholarly and professional publications.

Natasha Tokowicz, PhD (tokowicz@pitt.edu), is Assistant Professor of Psychology and Linguistics, and Research Scientist at the Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, USA. Her research focuses on how ambiguity, working memory, and cross-language similarity affect second language learning and cross-language processing. She is the author of articles in journals such as Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Language and Cognitive Processes, and Studies in Second Language Acquisition.

Maria Teresa Turell, PhD, is Professor of English Linguistics at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona (Spain). Her research interests include language variation, forensic linguistics, multilingualism, and language contact. She has published extensively on English, Catalan, and Spanish sociolinguistics and applied linguistics. Her most recent publications are Multilingualism in Spain and Lingüística Forense, Lengua y Derecho. She is currently working on a volume on forensic linguistics with John Gibbons.

Wang Xiaomei (guoguo101@hotmail.com) is a PhD candidate in the Department of Chinese, Translation and Linguistics at City University of Hong Kong, China. Her main research interests include language spread, language maintenance and shift. She has published articles in books and journals such as the Journal of Chinese Sociolinguistics.

Tessa Warren, PhD (tessa@pitt.edu), is Assistant Professor of Psychology and Linguistics, and Research Scientist at the Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, USA. Her research focuses on the way cognition constrains the computation of syntax and semantics during language comprehension. She is the author of articles in journals such as Cognition, Language and Cognitive Processes and Psychonomic Bulletin and Review.

Xu Daming, PhD (xudaming@nju.edu.cn), is Professor of Linguistics in the Department of Chinese Language and Literature at Nanjing University, China. His main research interests include sociolinguistics and bilingualism. He is author of A Survey of Language Use and Language Attitudes in the Singapore Chinese Community (NJU Press, 2005) and many articles in journals such as the Journal of Asian Pacific Communication.

Zhu Hua, PhD (zhu.hua@bbk.ac.uk), is Senior Lecturer in Applied Linguistics in the School of Languages, Linguistics and Culture at Birkbeck, University of London, UK. Her main research interests include cross-linguistic studies of speech and language development and disorder in young children, and cross-cultural communication. She is author of Phonological Development in Specific Contexts (Multilingual Matters, 2002) and PAC: Phonological Assessment of Chinese (Mandarin) (Speechmark, 2008), co-author of DEAP: Diagnostic Evaluation of Articulation and Phonology (Psychological Corporation, 2002), and co-editor of Phonological Development and Disorder: A Multilingual Perspective (Multilingual Matters, 2006) and Language Learning and Teaching as Social Inter-Action (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). She has published in journals such as the Journal of Child Language, Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, the International Journal of Language and Communication Disorder, and the Journal of Pragmatics and Multilingua.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the vast number of students and researchers with whom we have worked in various contexts over the years, who gave us the idea and initial impetus for doing a volume of this kind. Needless to say, the volume would not have been possible without the contributions of a truly outstanding team of international researchers. They responded to our various queries in a very positive way and showed tremendous professionalism and collegiality during the whole process.

Steve Smith and Philip Carpenter at Wiley-Blackwell gave the project their crucial backing from day one. The past and current editorial team members, Ada Brunstein, Sarah Coleman, Haze Humbert, and Danielle Descoteaux, have been very patient and professional. Louise Cooper of the marketing department has been very helpful.

Piers Gardner gave us valuable advice and support at a time when we most needed it.

Many of the contributors read each other’s draft chapters and made valuable comments. We are also very grateful to the readers Blackwell commissioned for their constructive comments. Much of this work was done while Li Wei was at Newcastle. He is most grateful for the support the University, especially the School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, gave him during the project. Thanks are also due to the Department of Filologia Anglesa at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, the Spanish Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia for grant BF2001-2576, and the Centre de recherche en éducation franco-ontarienne (Créfo) at the University of Toronto, for supporting Melissa G. Moyer during the project.

Preface

The Blackwell Guide to Research Methods in Bilingualism and Multilingualism was inspired by our belief that there is an urgent need for a “know-how” book that enables students and researchers to carry out a research project by themselves. The number of “know-what” publications on bilingualism and multilingualism is overwhelming for both the novice and the experienced. Yet, there is almost nothing that specifically deals with methodology in a comprehensive and systematic way. Nor is there anything that addresses the links between theory, method, and data for student use. A student of bilingualism and multilingualism is expected to “pick up” much in the way of knowledge and skills: the most effective way to collect data, how best to analyze and interpret them, what variables to consider in designing an experiment or case study, and what are workable or unworkable topics for a research project.

This essential guide to research methods in bilingualism and multilingualism is aimed at advanced undergraduates and postgraduate students as well as new researchers in a variety of disciplines, especially in linguistics, psychology, speech and language pathology, sociology, anthropology, and education. It guides the reader through a wide range of research topics, key concepts and approaches, methods and tools for collecting and analyzing data. It also contains valuable information about research resources, conference presentation, and journal publication. The chapters are written by an international team of established and young researchers with first-hand experience in bilingualism and multilingualism research.

The Guide consists of three parts. Part I contains two chapters. The first contextualizes the field of bilingualism and multilingualism by reviewing the major theoretical strands and the questions and hypotheses that researchers are currently investigating. The second chapter introduces bilingualism and multilingualism research as practice, offering practical advice on the process of doing research and the way theory, methods, and data are connected.

Part II is the main part of the Guide; it contains 17 chapters that cover various procedures, methods, and tools for data collection and analysis. The sequence of the chapters broadly follows the process of a research project, starting with decisions on the source of data and where to find it, continuing with design options of the study, and concluding with various ways of analyzing the data.

We have deliberately avoided grouping these chapters under the traditional “sociolinguistic” or “psycholinguistic” labels for two main reasons. First, we do not believe that these labels accurately describe the complex nature of bilingualism and multilingualism research, which has always been highly multidisciplinary. Second, we wish to offer the reader an opportunity to read beyond their immediate discipline of interest and to learn about other perspectives. While readers with specific interests and experience can dip in and out of specific chapters as they require, it would be highly desirable, time permitting, to read all the chapters in this part of the Guide.

The amount of detail and practical advice given in the different chapters in Part II varies. This is intentional, as some methods can be learned and applied fairly easily by the student while others require elaborate facilities and support. Even in the latter case, however, we believe that reading the chapters in this part (e.g. imaging technologies) will enable the student to better understand and appreciate the published studies on bilingualism and multilingualism. In some chapters, the term bilingualism is used as a convenient label to cover multilingualism as well.

Part III contains information and advice on project ideas, disseminating research results, and research resources. The aim of illustrative project ideas is to help new researchers to think creatively and make links between their personal research interests and broad themes of wider concern.

The Guide is intended to complement, rather than replace, existing textbooks and readers on bilingualism and multilingualism. We have tried to make the Guide as practical as possible. As this type of publication is still rare, we would be glad to hear any comments and suggestions for revision.

Li Wei, London

Melissa Moyer, Barcelona

Part I
Researching Bilingualism and Multilingualism