Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
About the Author
Foreword
Preface
List of Contributors
Part 1: Principles and Properties of Polyethylene
Chapter 1: An Industrial Chronology of Polyethylene
1.1 Overview
1.2 The Early Years
1.3 High Pressure Polyethylene
1.4 The Advent of High Density Polyethylene
1.5 Product and Process Proliferation
1.6 Single-Site Catalysts Arrive
1.7 The Future of LDPE
References
Chapter 2: Catalysts for the Manufacture of Polyethylene
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Synthesis of Low Density Polyethylene
2.3 Catalytic Synthesis of Polyethylene Resins
2.4 Chemistry of Catalytic Polymerization Reactions
2.5 Uniformity of Active Centers
References
Chapter 3: Ethylene Polymerization Processes and Manufacture of Polyethylene
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Processes
3.3 Resin Property and Reactor Control in Catalytic Polymerization Reactors
3.4 Economics
References
Chapter 4: Types and Basics of Polyethylene
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
4.3 Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) Copolymer
4.4 Acrylate Copolymers
4.5 Acid Copolymers
4.6 Ionomers
4.7 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
4.8 Ultra-High Molecular Weight HDPE (UHMW-HDPE)
4.9 Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)
4.10 Very Low Density Polyethylene (VLDPE)
4.11 Single-Site Catalyzed Polyethylenes
4.12 Olefin Block Copolymers (OBC)
4.13 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Molecular Structural Characterization of Polyethylene
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Molecular Weight – High Temperature GPC
5.3 Comonomer Distribution Measurement Techniques
5.4 PE Characterization with NMR
5.5 Polymer Analysis Using Vibrational Spectroscopy
5.6 Emerging Techniques
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6: Thermal Analysis of Polyethylene
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
6.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
6.4 Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)
6.5 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
6.6 Coupled Thermal Techniques
6.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Rheology of Polyethylene
7.1 Rheology Fundamentals
7.2 Melt Rheology
7.3 Dynamic Mechanical Testing on Solids and Solid-Like Materials
7.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Processing-Structure-Property Relationships in Polyethylene
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Processing-Structure-Properties Relationship in PE Blown Films
8.3 Processing-Structure-Properties Relationship in PE Cast Films
8.4 Processing-Structure-Properties Relationship in PE Injection Molding
8.5 Processing-Structure-Properties Relationship in PE Blow Molding
8.6 Processing-Structure-Properties Relationship in PE Fibers and Nonwovens
8.7 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Mechanical Properties of Polyethylene: Deformation and Fracture Behavior
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Stress-Strain Relations for PE
9.3 True Stress-Strain-Temperature Diagrams
9.4 Time Dependency of Necking in PE
9.5 Accelerated Testing for PE Lifetime in Durable Applications
9.6 Temperature Acceleration of SCG in PE
9.7 Conclusions
References
Part 2: Processing and Fabrication of Polyethylene
Chapter 10: Single-Screw Extrusion of Polyethylene Resins
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Screw Sections and Processes
10.3 Common Problems
10.4 Process Assessments
References
Chapter 11: Twin-Screw Extrusion of Polyethylene
11.1 Introduction
11.2 History
11.3 Twin-Screw Extruder Design
11.4 Components for Compounding Lines
11.5 Twin-Screw Mixer Performance for Bi-Modal HDPE Resins
11.6 Devolatilization Extrusion
11.7 Common Problems Associated with Twin-Screw Extruders
References
Chapter 12: Blown Film Processing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Line Rates
12.3 Monolayer Blown Film Dies
12.4 Coextrusion Blown Film Dies
12.5 Bubble Forming
12.6 Process Parameters
12.7 Blown Film Properties
References
Chapter 13: Cast Film Extrusion of Polyethylene
13.1 Description and Comparison to Blown Film Extrusion
13.2 Plasticating Extrusion
13.3 Dies
13.4 Cooling
13.5 Cast Film Processability of PE resins
13.6 Common Cast Extrusion Problems and Troubleshooting
13.7 Latest Developments
References
Chapter 14: Extrusion Coating and Laminating
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Equipment
14.3 Materials
14.4 Processing
14.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Injection Molding
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Machinery
15.3 Computer-Aided Design and Engineering
15.4 Part Design
15.5 Mold Design
15.6 Processing
15.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Blow Molding of Polyethylene
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Blow Molding Processes Using PE
16.3 Product Design with PE
16.4 Virtual Design and Performance Verification (CAE)
16.5 Design for Manufacturing (DFM) of Blow Molded PE Parts
16.6 Product Manufacturing with PE
16.7 Post Blow Molding Operations
16.8 Blow Mold Construction for PE
16.9 Auxiliary Equipment
16.10 Manufacturing Quality Control and Product Testing of PE Articles
16.11 PE Blow Molding Processing Considerations
16.12 Blow Molding Machine Manufacturers
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 17: Rotational Molding
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Material Properties
17.3 Rotational Molding Equipment
17.4 Molds
17.5 Molds and Part Design
17.6 Processing
17.7 Conclusions
17.8 Rotational Molding Resources
References
Chapter 18: Thermoforming Polyethylene
18.1 The Thermoforming Process
18.2 Material Considerations
18.3 Thermoforming Tooling for PE
18.4 Temperature Considerations
18.5 Process Variations
18.6 Basic Forming Methods
18.7 Thermoforming Techniques
References
Chapter 19: Polyethylene Pipe Extrusion
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Pipe Performance
19.3 Extrusion Process for Solid Wall Pipe
19.4 Equipment
19.5 Typical Zone Temperature Settings
19.6 Equipment Specific to Corrugated Pipe Extrusion
19.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Polyethylene Foam Extrusion
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Solid Materials
20.3 Blowing Agents and Understanding of Transport and Rheological Properties
20.4 Batch Study and Continuous PE Foam Extrusion
20.5 PE Foam Modeling
20.6 PE Foam Properties
20.7 Recent Developments
20.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 21: Expanded Polyethylene Bead Foam Technology
21.1 Introduction
21.2 History and Background of Bead Foam
21.3 Properties of PE Bead Foams
21.4 PE Bead Foam Material Characterization and Cell Structure
21.5 EPE Bead Foam Molding
21.6 Commercially Available Expanded PE Bead Foam Types
21.7 PE Bead Foam Molding
21.8 Stress-Strain Properties of PE Bead Foam
21.9 Benchmarking with Other Plastic Foams
21.10 PE Bead Foam Performance
21.11 PE Bead Foam Configuration
21.12 Summary
References
Chapter 22: Polyethylene Fiber Extrusion
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Fabrication Processes
22.3 Melt Spinning
22.4 Melt Blowing
22.5 Spunbonding
22.6 Solution Gel Spinning
22.7 Continuous Filaments
22.8 Staple Fibers
22.9 Flash Spinning
22.10 Electrospinning
22.11 Special Aspects
References
Chapter 23: Polyethylene Compounding Technologies
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Compounded PE Products
23.3 Blending Systems
23.4 Auxiliary Equipment
23.5 Additional Auxiliary Equipment
23.6 Compounding
23.7 Mixer Technology
23.8 Summary
References
Chapter 24: Polyethylene Modification by Reactive Extrusion
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Industrial Safety Aspects and Process Design of Reactive Extrusion
24.3 Grafting Reactions
24.4 Functional Group Modifications and Functionalization Reactions
24.5 Cross-Linking Reactions
24.6 Summary
References
Part 3: Additives for Polyethylene
Chapter 25: Degradation and Stabilization of Polyethylene
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Polyethylene Autoxidation
25.3 Polymer Stabilization
References
Chapter 26: Light Stabilization of Polyethylene
26.1 Mechanism of Photodegradation
26.2 Testing and Accelerated Weathering
26.3 Light Stabilizers
26.4 Light Stabilizers for Polyethylene
References
Chapter 27: Acid Scavengers for Polyethylene
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Basic Principles of Acid Scavenger Mechanisms
27.3 Physical and Chemical Description of Acid Neutralizers
27.4 Incorporation of Acid Neutralizers into Polyethylene
27.5 Testing Efficacy of Acid Neutralizers in Polyethylene
27.6 Example Formulations for Acid Neutralizers in Polyethylene
27.7 Common Problems Associated with Acid Neutralizer Usage
27.8 Trends
27.9 Conclusions
27.10 List of Manufacturers
References
Chapter 28: Slip Agents
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Testing
28.3 Mechanisms of These Effects
28.4 Fatty Amide Chemistries and Production
28.5 Formulation Techniques
28.6 Composition
28.7 Applications
28.8 Suppliers
References
Chapter 29: Antiblocking Additives
29.1 General Aspects
29.2 History
29.3 Details of Additives
29.4 The Nature of Blocking
29.5 Measurement Methods
29.6 Reducing Blocking
29.7 Side Effects
29.8 Examples of Uses
29.9 Toxicological Aspects
29.10 Suppliers
References
Chapter 30: Antistatic Additives for Polyethylene
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Polyethylene Overview
30.3 Chemical Structure of Antistatic Additives and Mechanism of Action
30.4 Measurements of Antistatic Activity
30.5 Effect of Different Additives on Antistatic Properties of LDPE
30.6 Suppliers of Antistatic Additives
References
Chapter 31: Antifogging Agents for Polyethylene Films
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Principle of Fog Formation on Polyethylene Films
31.3 Applications
31.4 Antifogs for Polyethylene
31.5 Evaluating Antifog Performance
31.6 Performance of Various Antifogs in Polyethylene Film
31.7 Regulatory Aspects
31.8 Future Trends
31.9 Suppliers of Antifog Agents
References
Chapter 32: Lubricants for Polyethylene
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Principles of Action
32.3 Types of Lubricants
32.4 Methods of Incorporation
32.5 Commercially Available Lubricants for UHMWPE
32.6 Special Applications
32.7 Slip Agents
References
Chapter 33: An Industrial Chronology of Polyethylene
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Common Fluorinated Polymer Processing Aids Used in Polyethylene
33.3 Benefits of Fluorinated Polymer Processing Aids in Polyethylene Melt Processing
33.4 Theory of How a Fluorinated PPA Works in the PE Extrusion Process
33.5 Effects of Other Additives and Development of Synergist Technology
33.6 Discussion and Data Related to Processing Improvements
33.7 Polyethylene Production Technology Relative to PPA Recommendations
33.8 Regulatory Information Related to Fluorinated PPAs
33.9 Partial List of Fluorinated Processing Aid Manufacturers
References
Chapter 34: Chemical Blowing Agents for Polyethylene
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Benefits of Foaming
34.3 General Requirements and Choices
34.4 Types of Chemical Blowing Agents
34.5 Methods of Incorporating Chemical Blowing Agents
34.6 Foam Processing Methods
34.7 Future Outlook for CBA in PE Foam
References
Chapter 35: Flame Retardants for Polyethylene
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Flame Retardants with Endothermic Decomposition
35.3 Flame Retardants with Gas Phase Mechanisms
35.4 Intumescent and/or Barrier Forming Flame Retardants
35.5 Radically Initiated and Accelerated Polymer Decomposition
35.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 36: Nucleating Agents for Polyethylene
36.1 Historical Perspective of PE Nucleation
36.2 The Importance of Crystalline Orientation
36.3 Nucleating Agents that Direct Lamellar Growth
36.4 Wide-Angle X-Ray Diffraction Analysis in Extruded Sheet
36.5 Physical Property Dependence on Lamellar Orientation
36.6 Conclusions and Future Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 37: Antimicrobial Agents for Polyethylene
37.1 Introduction: The Need for Antimicrobial Protection
37.2 Types of Microbes
37.3 Antimicrobial Chemicals
37.4 Selection of Antimicrobials for Incorporation into PE
37.5 Antimicrobial Test Methods
37.6 Processing
References
Chapter 38: Pigments and Colorants for Polyethylene
38.1 Introduction – The Fundamentals of Color
38.2 Describing and Measuring Color
38.3 Fundamentals of Pigments
38.4 Effect Pigments – Introduction
38.5 Pigment Properties and Applications
38.6 Regulatory Considerations
38.7 Colorants
38.8 List of Pigments for PE
Acknowledgments
References
Part 4: Applications of Polyethylene
Chapter 39: Fillers and Reinforcing Agents for Polyethylene
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Factors for Filler Performance
39.3 Filler Characteristics
39.4 Structure
39.5 Interfacial Interactions and Interphase
39.6 Surface Modification
39.7 Micromechanical Deformations
39.8 Properties
39.9 Application
39.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 40: Flexible Packaging Applications of Polyethylene
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Flexible Packaging Market
40.3 Utilization of Polyethylene for Flexible Packaging
40.4 Functions of Flexible Packaging
40.5 Conversion of Materials into Pouches or Bags
40.6 Secondary Packaging
40.7 Tertiary Packaging
40.8 End-of-Life (EOL) Considerations
References
Chapter 41: Rigid Packaging Applications
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Blow Molded Bottles and Containers
41.3 Injection Molded Containers, Lids, Caps, and Closures
41.4 Thermoformed Containers
41.5 Personal Care, Medical, and Pharmaceutical Packaging
41.6 Rigid Polyethylene Packaging and Sustainability
References
Chapter 42: Pipe and Tubing Applications of Polyethylene
42.1 Introduction
42.2 History
42.3 HDPE Application to Water Supply and Structural Pipe
42.4 MDPE and its Application to Potable Water and Natural Gas
References
Chapter 43: Wire and Cable Applications of Polyethylene
43.1 Overview
43.2 Communications Applications
43.3 PE in Power Cable Applications
43.4 Specialty Applications
43.5 Additive Requirements
43.6 Extrusion Processing
43.7 Summary
References
Chapter 44: Medical Applications of Polyethylene
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Regulatory Considerations
44.3 Medical Packaging
44.4 Implants
44.5 Recent Developments
44.6 Summary
References
Chapter 45: Automotive Applications for Polyethylene
45.1 Fuel Tanks and Systems
45.2 PE Elastomers as Impact Modifiers for TPO
45.3 Miscellaneous PE Applications
45.4 Emerging PE Applications
References
Chapter 46: Textile, Hygiene, Health, and Geosynthetic Applications of Polyethylene
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Applications
46.3 Hygiene
46.4 Health
46.5 Geosynthetics
46.6 Closing Remarks
References
Chapter 47: Applications of Polyethylene Elastomers and Plastomers
47.1 Brief History of Elastomers
47.2 Definitions
47.3 Formulations and Compounding
47.4 Compounding Methodology
47.5 Article Conversion
47.6 Applications
47.7 Summary
References
Part 5: The Business of Polyethylene
Chapter 48: Product Regulatory Considerations for Polyethylene
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Risk Assessment Fundamentals
48.3 International Legislation for Food Packaging Safety
48.4 Drinking Water Regulation
48.5 Global Chemical Inventories and Control Laws
48.6 Restricted Chemicals Legislation
48.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 49: Sustainability and Recycling of Polyethylene
49.1 Types of Polyethylene
49.2 Properties of HDPE and LDPE
49.3 Applications for HDPE and LDPE
49.4 Recycling of HDPE and LDPE
49.5 Sustainability of Polyethylene and Polyethylene Production
References
Chapter 50: Bio-Polyethylene and Polyethylene-Biopolymer Blends
50.1 Environmentally Friendly Synthesis
50.2 Properties of Bio-PE
50.3 Manufacturers of Bio-PE
50.4 Formulations of Bio-PE
50.5 Special Uses
50.6 Biodegradation
References
Chapter 51: The Business of Polyethylene
51.1 Introduction
51.2 Raw Materials
51.3 Basic Materials
51.4 PE Producers
51.5 Polyolefins Polymerization Technologies
51.6 PE Grades and Applications
51.7 PE Markets
51.8 PE Processors
51.9 PE End Users
51.10 Competitiveness – Olefins and Polyolefins
51.11 Current Developments
51.12 Conclusions
References
Appendix A1: Polymer Abbreviation Definitions
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1: Examples of peroxide initiators for the synthesis of LDPE [1].
Table 2.2: Concentration of silanol groups in calcined silca as a function of temperature [14].
Table 2.3: Performance of catalysts containing synthesized MgCl
2
in ethylene/1-hexene copolymerization reactions [9, 52–54].
Table 2.4: The effect of the [MAO]:[Zr] ratio in an ethylene/1-hexene copolymerization reaction with the (C
5
H
5
)
2
ZrCl
2
-MAO system at 40 °C.
Table 2.5: Productivity for ethylene/1-hexene copolymerization reactions for bis-indenyl complexes at 75 °C with MAO as a cocatalyst [9].
Table 2.6: Components of a PE homopolymer produced with different populations of active centers in chromium oxide catalyst [127].
Table 2.7: Fractionation of ethylene/ a-olefin plastomers [8].
Chapter 3
Table 3.1: Sales of PE in North America in 2013 [3].
Table 3.2: Chronology of major PE process developments.
Table 3.3: Process conditions and product range for slurry loop processes.
Table 3.4: Process conditions and product range for slurry CSTR processes.
Table 3.5: Process conditions and product range of solution processes for production of LLDPE.
Table 3.6: Investment costs for major processes to manufacture PE at 400,000 tonnes/year.
Table 3.7: Operating costs for major processes to manufacture PE.
Table 3.8: Single-train capacity and worldwide capacity of PE processes.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1: Features, benefits, and applications of ethylene-based plastomers (POPs) and elastomers (POEs).
Table 4.2: Summary of density, melting point, degree of crystallinity, and year of commercial introduction of major types of PE resins.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1: Transition dipole angles and peak assignments for select PE peaks.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1a: ASTM thermal methods for PE: differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).
Table 6.1b: ASTM thermal methods for PE: thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).
Table 6.1c: ASTM thermal methods for PE: thermomechanical analysis (TMA).
Table 6.1d: ASTM thermal methods for PE: dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA).
Table 6.2: Examples of PE T
g
and T
m
values (values taken from refs [8–12]).
Table 6.3: Comparison of various EGA techniques for polymers.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1: Summary of the properties presented in this section. All of the testing is unidirectional.
Table 7.2: Summary of dynamic oscillatory testing and parameters frequently used in dynamic testing.
Table 7.3: Relationship between machine parameters and rheological parameters.
Table 7.4: Constants for the PE resins just discussed for the Williamson-Arrhenius models.
Table 7.5: Equations for fundamental rheology parameters for capillary rheometry.
Table 7.6: Relation of melt flow rate parameters to fundamental rheology parameters. Correlations are to be performed with discretion.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1: Polymers used in the study [8].
Table 8.2: Molecular orientation, Elmendorf tear, and dart impact (method A) of the high and low MD orientation blown films [8].
Chapter 10
Table 10.1: Typical rates for unfilled PE resins at a screw speed of 100 rpm as a function of barrel diameter.
Table 10.2: Application requirements for a 100 mm diameter barrel plasticator for unfilled PE resins.
Table 10.3: Customer process improvements obtained via screw design and process optimization.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1: Specifications for counter-rotating, intermeshing twins-screw mixers as a function of diameter (courtesy of JSW).
Table 11.2: Comparison of the specific energy input given by different screws at rates between 250 and 400 kg/h and a screw speed of 400 rpm [21].
Chapter 12
Table 12.1: Typical die specific output (DSO) rates for various PE resin types.
Table 12.2: Die gaps and land lengths commonly used for LDPE and LLDPE blown film dies.
Table 12.3: Typical key temperatures for LLDPE resins (0.5 dg/min MI, solid density of 0.917 g/cm
3
).
Table 12.4: Select film properties for LLDPE film samples made using octene copolymer and a Zigler-Natta catalyst as a function of solid density. (Courtesy of The Dow Chemical Company).
Table 12.5: Select film properties for LLDPE resins made using a Zigler-Natta catalyst and different comonomers. (Courtesy of Nova Chemical)
Chapter 16
Table 16.1: LEV III permeation requirements mandated for implementation by 2018 to 2024.
Table 16.2: Dependence of physical properties for PE as a function of MI and density.
Table 16.3: Troubleshooting the PE blow molding process.
Table 16.4: Blow molding machine manufacturers.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1: Effect of density on the physical properties of PE.
Table 17.2: Effect of MI on the physical properties of PE.
Table 17.3: United States standard sieve series, sieve opening size.
Table 17.4: Typical 35-mesh powder distribution for HDPE.
Table 17.5: Thermal conductivity of common metals used in rotational molding tools. Thermal conductance is the thermal conductivity divided by the thickness of the metal for the process.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1: Zone temperatures for a typical grooved feed extruder.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1: PE resin types and typical properties [2–4].
Table 20.2: Types and applications of polyolefin foams as of 2014.
Table 20.3: Polyolefin foam demand in 2014 [6].
Table 20.4: History of polyolefin foam technologies.
Table 20.5: Selected chemical blowing agents and their properties [12–15].
Table 20.6: List of physical blowing agents and properties for PE foams [2, 15].
Table 20.7: Typical diffusivity, solubility, and permeability coefficients for gases in LDPE at 1 atm.
Table 20.8: Typical physical properties of extruded PE foams at various densities [50].
Chapter 21
Table 21.1: List of expandable products produced globally.
Table 21.2: Commercial EPE molding processes for steam chest compression molding.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1: Methods for producing PE fibers.
Table 22.2: Mechanical properties solution spun/drawn monofilaments [40].
Table 22.3: Composition [27, 71].
Table 22.4: Spin agents for flash spinning of PE [81].
Chapter 24
Table 24.1: Melt flow rate, viscosity, tan delta and melt strength data for unprocessed LLDPE, extruded LLDPE and extruded LLDPE with 120 ppm of alkoxy amine derivative [72].
Chapter 25
Table 25.1: Phenolic antioxidant compounds.
Table 25.2: Organophosphorus compounds commonly used in polyethylene stabilization.
Table 25.3: Thioester type antioxidants.
Table 25.4: Metal deactivator antioxidants.
Chapter 26
Table 26.1: Energy of chemical bonds and UV light.
Table 26.2: Selected artificial weathering methods and conditions.
Table 26.3: pKa values for HALS.
Chapter 27
Table 27.1: Generalization of some common metal soap properties.
Table 27.2: Common acid scavengers and dosing for different types of PE.
Table 27.3: The list of manufacturers of some of the antacids commercially available.
Chapter 28
Table 28.1: Blocking force in grams for an LDPE film with 1000 ppm (0.1%) additive at different temperatures and pressures.
Table 28.2: Chemical formula for commonly used primary fatty amides.
Table 28.3: Summary of properties for fatty amide structure (X indicates the amide functions effectively).
Chapter 29
Table 29.1: Properties of diatomeous earth, glass spheres, synthetic silica, and acrylic microparticles [15].
Table 29.2: Inorganic antiblocking additives [1].
Table 29.3: Physicochemical data of EXP 5700–1 [23].
Table 29.4: Antiblocking agents [43].
Table 29.5: Antiblocking agents for high clarity and strength PE [49].
Table 29.6: Industrial suppliers of antiblocking agents [42].
Chapter 30
Table 30.1: Classification of electrical insulation and conduction [1].
Table 30.2: Common electrical properties measured for PE products.
Table 30.3: Surface resistivities and charge decay half-time ratings.
Table 30.4: Antistatic additive manufacturers and trade names.
Chapter 31
Table 31.1: Appearance ratings of antifog performance.
Table 31.2: Cold fog performance of GMO in monolayer LDPE blown film. The rating scale provided in Table 31.1 was used to measure the performance.
Table 31.3: Cold fog performance of PGE or GMO in a multilayer LDPE/HDPE/mLLDPE film. The rating scale provided in Table 31.1 was used to measure the performance.
Table 31.4: Suppliers and producers of antifog agents.
Chapter 32
Table 32.1: Demolding force for lubricants [4].
Table 32.2: Classes of lubricants.
Table 32.3: Commercially available lubricants [16].
Chapter 33
Table 33.1: Results of temperature, screw speed, output (rate), power, pressure, and film appearance for an LLDPE resins with and without 450 ppm Kynar Flex
®
PPA (PVDF copolymer). The materials were run using a blown film line with 63.5 mm diameter, 30 L/D extruder with a 25.4 cm diameter die and 0.64 mm gap.
Table 33.2: Capillary study of shear rate of vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene copolymer of 87 to 93% VF2 and 7 to 13% HFP in UHMPE [16].
Table 33.3: Fluorinated PPA additive manufacturers and trade names.
Chapter 34
Table 34.1: Typical exothermic CBAs for PE resin.
Table 34.2: Typical endothermic CBAs used for PE foaming.
Table 34.3: Comparison of extrusion temperature profiles for non-foamed and foamed parts utilizing HDPE.
Table 34.4: Comparison of injection molding profiles for non-foamed and foamed parts utilizing HDPE.
Chapter 35
Table 35.1: Flame retardant mechanisms and representative flame retardants.
Chapter 36
Table 36.1: Table of observed Avrami exponents and nucleation densities.
Chapter 37
Table 37.1: Common examples of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Table 37.2: Common examples of fungi and yeasts.
Table 37.3: Examples of viruses.
Table 37.4: Commonly used industrial antimicrobials/biocides for olefins.
Table 37.5: MIC spectrum of thiabendazole.
Chapter 38
Table 38.1: General comparison of properties of the organic and inorganic chromatic pigments (excluding carbon black).
Table 38.2: Other names used for the pigment shown in Figure 38.4a.
Table 38.3: Effect pigment product listing. (Courtesy of BASF).
Table 38.4: Pigment weather resistance data (WF = weather-fastness, WR = white reduction) for HDPE injection molded plaques with 3000 hours of exposure (courtesy of BASF).
Table 38.5: Cost of replacing Pb pigments varies by application requirement (courtesy of BASF).
Table 38.6: Refractive indices of white pigments compared to PE.
Table 38.7: List of potential inorganic colors for PE; tint is usually a 4:1 ratio of pigment to titanium dioxide.
Table 38.8: List of potential organic colorants for PE; ratio of pigment to titanium dioxide is most often 0.1% to 1.0% except as indicated.
Chapter 39
Table 39.1: Consumption of particulate fillers in Europe in 2007 [1].
Table 39.2: The most important characteristics of frequently used fillers and reinforcements.
Table 39.3: Interphase thickness in particulate filled polymers determined by different techniques.
Table 39.4: Applications for fillers in PE.
Chapter 40
Table 40.1: Utilization of PE resins in flexible packaging as a percentage of the total polymer utilization [4].
Table 40.2: Flexible packaging market size in Europe and North America in 2013 [5].
Table 40.3: Materials used in flexible packaging, including food and industrial applications [8].
Table 40.4: Properties of three different grades of LLDPE for which the heat seal curves are shown in Figure 40.4.
Table 40.5: Oxygen permeability of packaging materials [11].
Table 40.6: Water vapor permeability of materials used in flexible packaging [11].
Table 40.7: Comparison of products produced using FFS equipment to those for premade pouches.
Table 40.8: Shrink film applications, structures, and end uses.
Table 40.9: Comparison of unitization films in terms of typical gauge and utilization costs including energy in the form of heat.
Chapter 41
Table 41.1: Comparative properties (typical values) of PE and other polymers commonly used in rigid packaging [1–4].
Table 41.2: Barrier properties (typical values) for PE and other packaging materials [5].
Chapter 42
Table 42.1: Common properties for PE pressure pipe resins.
Chapter 43
Table 43.1: Typical physical and electrical properties for common categories of PEs in wire and cable use [49].
Table 43.2: Some key additives used in PE-based wire and cable applications.
Chapter 44
Table 44.1: General property comparisons of polyethylenes of different densities.
Table 44.2: Matrix of packaging concerns for common classes of drug products [4].
Table 44.3: Polyethylene usage by application in 2012 (million pounds). (Reprinted with permission from BCC Research [9]).
Table 44.4: Barrier properties of some polyethylenes, PE copolymers and common packaging materials [10].
Table 44.5: Properties of HDPE and UHMWPE [3].
Table 44.6: Comparison of wear rate by the hip simulator test for UHMWPE, HDPE, and PTFE [17].
Table 44.7: Tensile strength and wear rate of cross-linked UHMWPE [18].
Chapter 45
Table 45.1: TPO application penetration growth [10].
Chapter 46
Table 46.1: Various types of polyethylene and their applications.
Chapter 47
Table 47.1: Formulation template based on PE olefin block copolymer (OBC) component range.
Table 47.2: Example formulation for a peroxide-cured EPDM blend used for radiator hoses [14]. Key physical properties are provided.
Table 47.3: Typical POE thermoset formulation and resulting physical properties.
Table 47.4: Typical POE and PE OBC bun stock compounds and resulting physical properties.
Table 47.5: Recommended starting point barrel setting temperatures for twin-screw extrusion processing.
Table 47.6: Recommend starting zone temperatures for the processing of a soft TPO compound using a single-screw extruder.
Table 47.7: Suggested processing temperatures for injection molding of select TPO and POE blends.
Table 47.8: Automotive seal systems.
Chapter 48
Table 48.1: Safety test recommendations for food contact notification.
Table 48.2: Summary of migration data in three food simulants for LDPE.
Chapter 49
Table 49.1: Classification of polyethylene [3].
Table 49.2: Properties of HDPE and LDPE.
Table 49.3: Recycling of polyethylene in the United States.
Chapter 50
Table 50.1: The production of bio-ethanol in various countries [2, 3].
Table 50.2: Yield of glucose [9].
Table 50.3: Biodegradable PE composition [79].
Table 50.4: Formulations of corrosion inhibitors [86].
Table 50.5: ASTM biodegradability standards for plastic materials.
Table 50.6: Effects of various prooxidants on LDPE [118].
Chapter 51
Table 51.1: World ethylene capacity.
Table 51.2: Global demand distribution by plastic type – 1990 to 2017 [5].
Table 51.3: High pressure autoclave and tubular process technologies for PE.
Table 51.4: PE slurry process technologies.
Table 51.5: PE Solution process technologies.
Table 51.6: PE gas phase process technologies.
Table 51.7: U.S. and Canada sales and captive use by process grade in 2014 (millions of pounds) [18].
Table 51.8: U.S. and Canada sales and captive use by major markets for 2014 (millions of pounds) [18].
Table 51.9: Feedstock prices [31].
Table 51.10: Canada – new build polyolefins projects.
Table 51.11: Mexico – new build polyolefins projects.
Table 51.12: United States – new build polyolefins projects.
Table 51.13: North America – existing polyethylene plants capacity expansions.