Cover
Title Page
Notes on Contributors
Prologue
1. REFERENCES
Part I: Production
1. 1 Overview
  1. Generating a syntactic structure
  2. Distributing information
  3. Bilingualism, multilingualism, and signing
  4. Linking production and comprehension
  5. Themes, resolutions, and challenges
  6. REFERENCES
2. 2 Syntactic Encoding: Novel Insights Into the Relationship Between Grammar and Processing
  1. Introduction
  2. Syntactic encoding in the M&M of agreement
  3. Syntactic encoding in the Feature and Controller selection model of agreement
  4. Effects on Feature selection
  5. Effects of feature stability
  6. Effects of the notional representation of the subject phrase
  7. Effects on Controller selection
  8. Effects of semantic similarity
  9. Effects of case marking similarity
  10. Effects of syntactic similarity
  11. Syntactic structure and memory in attraction: Evidence for a close alignment
  12. Summary and future challenges
  13. Acknowledgments
  14. REFERENCES
3. 3 Signal Reduction and Linguistic Encoding
  1. Introduction
  2. Probabilistic reduction: Contextual predictability and signal reduction
  3. Theoretical positions
  4. Conclusion
  5. Acknowledgments
  6. REFERENCES
4. 4 Production in Bilingual and Multilingual Speakers
  1. Introduction
  2. Theories of language production in bilinguals
  3. Translation
  4. Bilingual cognitive control
  5. Conclusions
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. REFERENCES
5. 5 Production of Signed Utterances
  1. Introduction
  2. Basic prosody in sign languages
  3. Production studies of syllable prosody
  4. Production studies of stress and sentence level prosody
  5. Production studies of signing rate effects
  6. Studies of prosody and signer fluency
  7. Production studies of slips of the hand
  8. Instrumental attempts to capture production prosody
  9. Discourse effects on utterance production
  10. Implications of comparing ASL and English
  11. Conclusion
  12. REFERENCES
6. 6 Parity and Disparity in Conversational Interaction
  1. Introduction
  2. Perspective‐taking and coordination in language use
  3. Communication accommodation
  4. Interactive alignment
  5. Phonetic convergence during conversational interaction
  6. Entrainment
  7. Conclusion
  8. Author Note
  9. REFERENCES
7. 7 Models Linking Production and Comprehension
  1. Introduction
  2. Representational parity
  3. Linked processes
  4. Dialogue
  5. Summary
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. REFERENCES
Part II: Comprehension
1. 8 Overview
  1. Decoding the signal
  2. Processing words
  3. Sentences and discourse
  4. Putting it all together
  5. Summing up
  6. REFERENCES
2. 9 Speech Perception: Research, Theory, and Clinical Application
  1. Introduction
  2. Historical foundations of speech perception
  3. Traditional approach to speech perception: Speech cues and phonetic perception
  4. Linearity, invariance, and segmentation
  5. Fundamental problems in speech perception
  6. Self‐organization in speech perception
  7. Variability and perceptual constancy in speech perception
  8. Symbolic versus nonanalytic approaches to speech perception
  9. Spoken word recognition and lexical neighborhoods
  10. Indexical and linguistic channels in speech perception
  11. Research on deaf children with cochlear implants: Inferring function from dysfunction
  12. What is a cochlear implant and how does it work?
  13. Age of implantation
  14. Experience‐ and activity‐dependent learning
  15. Theoretical implications of research on deaf children with cochlear implants
  16. Summary and Conclusions
  17. REFERENCES
3. 10 Cross‐Language and Second Language Speech Perception
  1. Introduction
  2. The mapping issue
  3. The perceptual and learning difficulty/ease issue
  4. The plasticity issue
  5. Conclusion
  6. REFERENCES
4. 11 Models of Lexical Access and Morphological Processing
  1. Introduction
  2. Methodological issues
  3. Lexicon‐based and learning‐based models of word recognition
  4. Lexical access: Morphological and form effects in early visual word recognition
  5. Summary: Lexical Access and Morphological Processing
  6. Author Note
  7. REFERENCES
5. 12 Orthography, Word Recognition, and Reading
  1. Introduction
  2. Models of written word recognition
  3. Models of gaze behavior during reading
  4. Language comprehension and reading
  5. Conclusion
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. REFERENCES
6. 13 The Bilingual Lexicon
  1. Introduction
  2. Parallel activation of the bilingual’s two languages
  3. Models of the bilingual lexicon
  4. Language nonselectivity in reading in context
  5. Neurocognitive evidence for language nonselectivity in lexical access
  6. Lexical access in bilingual speech planning
  7. Mechanisms of language selection in spoken production
  8. Learning new words
  9. Conclusions
  10. Author Notes
  11. REFERENCES
7. 14 Sentence Processing and Interpretation in Monolinguals and Bilinguals: Classical and Contemporary Approaches
  1. Syntactic parsing
  2. Classical approaches to syntax and sentence processing
  3. More contemporary approaches
  4. Dual streams and good‐enough parsing
  5. Event‐related potentials and sentence processing
  6. Semantic P600 effects
  7. The late frontal positivity
  8. Hypotheses relating to sentence processing in bilinguals
  9. ERP evidence in bilingual sentence processing
  10. Neural markers of L2 sentence processing
  11. Conclusions
  12. Author Notes
  13. REFERENCES
8. 15 The Comprehension of Anaphora and Verb Agreement
  1. Introduction
  2. Some facts about anaphora and agreement
  3. Experimental research
  4. Conclusion
  5. REFERENCES
9. 16 Prosody in Sentence Processing
  1. Introduction
  2. Prosodic structure and features
  3. Parsing the speech stream
  4. Prosody in syntactic processing
  5. Prosody in extended domains
  6. Prosody in second language processing
  7. Conclusions
  8. REFERENCES
10. 17 Semantic‐Pragmatic Processing
  1. Introduction
  2. Reference resolution
  3. Inferences
  4. Conclusion
  5. REFERENCES
11. 18 Comprehension in Older Adult Populations: Healthy Aging, Aphasia, and Dementia
  1. Introduction
  2. Comprehension in healthy aging
  3. Comprehension in aphasia
  4. Comprehension in dementia
  5. Summary on comprehension in dementia
  6. Summary
  7. REFERENCES
12. 19 Neurolinguistic Studies of Sentence Comprehension
  1. Introduction
  2. Neurolinguistic studies of sentence comprehension
  3. Syntax
  4. Semantics
  5. Summary
  6. REFERENCES
Part III: Acquisition
1. 20 Overview
  1. REFERENCES
2. 21 Speech Perception in Infants: Propagating the Effects of Language Experience
  1. Introduction
  2. Brief history of fundamental theoretical issues in infant speech perception research
  3. Theoretical models of the effects of language experience
  4. Models of perceptual attunement to native speech contrasts in infancy
  5. Developing word‐form recognition from late infancy through toddlerhood
  6. Synopsis: Infant speech perception and spoken word recognition
  7. Where do we go from here?
  8. REFERENCES
3. 22 Children’s Performance Abilities: Language Production
  1. Introduction
  2. Theoretical considerations
  3. Methodological considerations
  4. Phonological encoding and articulation
  5. Lexical retrieval
  6. Syntactic encoding
  7. Conclusion
  8. Acknowledgment
  9. REFERENCES
4. 23 Language Comprehension in Monolingual and Bilingual Children
  1. Introduction
  2. Looking and listening
  3. Phonetic development
  4. Finding words in the speech stream
  5. Word learning
  6. Understanding language in real time
  7. Challenges to language comprehension
  8. Conclusions
  9. Acknowledgments
  10. REFERENCES
5. 24 Names for Things… and Actions and Events: Following in the Footsteps of Roger Brown
  1. Introduction
  2. What does it mean to know a word?
  3. The process of word learning
  4. What it takes to learn a word: Quantity and quality of input
  5. The timeline of lexical acquisition
  6. Models of word learning: Solving the mapping problem
  7. Conclusion
  8. REFERENCES
6. 25 The Acquisition of Morphology
  1. Introduction
  2. The foundation: Roger Brown
  3. Brown’s method for establishing a morpheme has been acquired
  4. Results
  5. Acquisition of a rule, or memorized chunk: Jean Berko Gleason
  6. Generalizations on the acquisition of inflection
  7. The role of input
  8. Other factors that affect the acquisition of morphology
  9. Conclusion and future research
  10. REFERENCES
7. 26 The Acquisition of Syntax
  1. Introduction
  2. Early multi‐word utterances: The root infinitive stage
  3. Null subjects in early language
  4. Later language development: A‐movement
  5. Control
  6. Control versus raising
  7. General conclusions
  8. REFERENCES
8. 27 Social Interaction and Language Acquisition: Toward a Neurobiological View
  1. Introduction
  2. Social interaction matters: Humans vs. machines
  3. Social interaction matters: Children with autism
  4. Social interaction matters: Non‐human animals
  5. Mechanisms of social interactions
  6. Candidate brain mechanisms
  7. A neurobiological view
  8. Conclusions
  9. Acknowledgments
  10. REFERENCES
  11. FURTHER READING
9. 28 Bilingual Acquisition: A Morphosyntactic Perspective on Simultaneous and Early Successive Language Development
  1. Language acquisition types: Monolingual and bilingual
  2. Simultaneous bilingualism: Bilingual first language acquisition
  3. Successive bilingualism: Child second language acquisition
  4. Conclusions and open questions
  5. REFERENCES
10. 29 The Development of Morphosyntax in Child and Adult Second Language Acquisition
  1. Introduction
  2. Child second language acquisition
  3. First language acquisition, bilingual acquisition, and child second language acquisition
  4. Some theoretical and methodological issues in the study of child SLA
  5. Child L2 acquisition of morphosyntax
  6. Adult L2 acquisition of morphosyntax
  7. Grammar‐based explanations of morphosyntactic variability
  8. Performance‐based models of L2 development
  9. Summary
  10. REFERENCES
11. 30 Signed Language Acquisition: Input
  1. Introduction
  2. Unique input
  3. The issue of iconicity
  4. Prior reviews of the literature
  5. The canonical (but rarer) case of signed language input
  6. Spoken language input
  7. Signed language input: Heterogeneity
  8. Cases of learners surpassing their input
  9. Language acquisition in the absence of language input
  10. A transitional input between home sign and Nicaraguan Sign Language
  11. Conclusion
  12. REFERENCES
Index
End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 10
1. Table 10.1 Assimilation types, examples of their perception, and predicted discrimination levels according to the Perceptual Assimilation Model (Best, 1995).
2. Table 10.2 SLM predictions of L2 learners’ perception (and production) accuracy as a function of age of learning and L1‐L2 sound relation (with examples). A “+” indicates successful learning, a “−“ incorrect perception and accented production, and “−/+” and “+/−“ intermediate degrees of accuracy. Note that the labels on both axes of Table 10.2 are points along continua.
Chapter 24
1. Table 24.1 Milestones of lexical acquisition
Chapter 25
1. Table 25.1 Hypothetical data set of a child’s production of third person singular –s in obligatory contexts.
2. Table 25.2 Rate of agreement errors in a range of languages
3. Table 25.3 Review of research on the acquisition of morphology across languages
Chapter 26
1. Table 26.1 Number of children in Orfitelli 2012b showing above chance performance for StSR sentences with seem and (be) about as compared to non‐actional passives

List of Illustrations

Chapter 03
1. Figure 3.1 Illustration of a few types of implicit decisions speakers make during linguistic encoding that affect the degree of signal reduction. Reduction can be caused by decisions at multiple levels of linguistic encoding, including sentence, lexical, and phonological planning, as well as articulation. In the appropriate context, the upper and lower utterances encode the same message; yet the lower utterance contains shorter linguistic forms and is realized with a much reduced speech signal, compared to the upper utterance. Inspired by Friedman (2013).
Chapter 04
1. Figure 4.1 (a) Schematic representation of Language‐Selective Activation Models (adapted from La Heij, 2005) for an English‐Spanish bilingual naming the picture of a butterfly in English. Due to the language cue (part of the preverbal message) the intended name will reach the highest activation level and will thus be selected. (b) Schematic representation of a general Non‐Selective Language Activation Model (adapted from Costa et al., 2006 and Kroll et al., 2008). For an English‐Spanish bilingual, when naming the picture of a butterfly in Spanish mariposa, the language not in use (English) will be also active. A language cue represents the intention to name the object in one of the two languages. Note that in the course of naming this picture, there may be several lexical representations activated (for example, semantically related items such as caterpillar, spider, ant, etc.) in both languages and there can be activation of abstract candidates at the lexical level or among phonological representations. (Figure continues on next page.) (c) Schematic representation of naming a picture with a Cognate name (left‐ lemon in Dutch citroen and in French citron) and a Non‐Cognate name (right‐ apple in Dutch appel and in French pomme) for a Dutch‐French bilingual. (d) Schematic representation of naming a picture with a Gender‐Incongruent name (left: cartepillar, in Spanish oruga_FEM and in Italian bruco_MAS) and Gender‐Congruent name (right: butterfly, in Spanish mariposa_FEM and in Italian farfalla_FEM) for an Italian‐Spanish bilingual (adapted from Costa et al., 2000).
Chapter 07
1. Figure 7.1 Panel (a) shows production processes (white arrows on black background) and comprehension processes (black arrows on white background); Panel (b) shows loops: the solid line is Levelt’s (1989) Perceptual Loop; the dotted arrows are Pickering and Garrod’s (2013) fast loops between and within levels; the dashed arrows are external loops that include long‐term effects of exposure to distributional regularities in linguistic input (see The P‐chain framework, and Frameworks that posit linked preferences).
Chapter 09
1. Figure 9.1 Vowel projections at the auditory periphery reveal that information for speaker identification (Panel A) and perception of vowel quality (Panel B) is carried simultaneously and in parallel by the same acoustic signal. The tonotopic organization of the absolute frequencies using a bark scale provides reliable cues to speaker identification, whereas the relations among the formant (F1, F2 and F3) patterns in terms of difference from F0 in barks provide reliable cues to vowel identification.
2. Figure 9.2 Internal and external components of a multichannel cochlear implant system, consisting of a microphone (1) that picks up sound from the environment, a speech processor (2) that converts sound into electrical signals, a surgically implanted receiver (3), and an internal electrode array inserted in the cochlea (4) that sends electrical pulses to each electrode tonotopically.
Chapter 13
1. Figure 13.1 Two models of the bilingual lexicon. The model in Figure 1a is the Revised Hierarchical Model, adapted from Kroll and Stewart (1994). The model in Figure 1b is the Bilingual Interactive Activation + or BIA+ model, adapted from Dijkstra and Van Heuven (2002).
Chapter 15
1. Figure 15.1 Schematic representation of coreference processing, in which a proform initiates a process whereby the syntactic information (both structural and featural) associated with previously‐mentioned NPs is used to eliminate inappropriate NPs (note the X in the dotted arrows to higher and non‐c‐commanding NPs). Once permissible NPs are identified as possible antecedents, their semantics may be retrieved. Here the dashed arrow indicates the link between the reflexive and the syntactically appropriate antecedent.
Chapter 19
1. Figure 19.1 The cortical sentence processing network (schematic view of the left hemisphere). The major areas involved in sentence processing are color coded. In the frontal cortex, five language‐related regions are labeled: three Brodmann areas (BA 47, 45, 44), the premotor cortex (PMC) and the ventrally located frontal operculum (FOP). In the temporal and parietal cortex the following regions are labeled: the primary auditory cortex (PAC), the anterior (a) and posterior (p) portions of the superior temporal gyrus (STG) and sulcus (STS), the middle temporal gyrus (MTG) and the inferior parietal cortex (IPC). The solid black lines schematically indicate the direct pathways between these regions. The dashed black line indicates an indirect connection between the pSTG/STS and the PMC mediated by the IPC. The arrows indicate the assumed major direction of the information flow between these regions. During auditory sentence comprehension, information flow starts from PAC and proceeds from there to the anterior STG and via ventral connections along the uncinate fasciculus (UF) to the frontal cortex. Back‐projections from BA 45 to anterior STG and MTG via ventral connections along the inferior fronto‐occipital fasciculus (IFOF) are assumed to support top–down processes in the semantic domain, and the dorsal back‐projection from BA 44 to posterior STG/STS along the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) including the arcuate fasciculus (AF) are assumed to subserve top–down processes relevant for the assignment of grammatical relations. The dorsal pathway from PAC via pSTG/STS to the PMC is assumed to support auditory‐to‐motor mapping. Furthermore, within the temporal cortex, anterior and posterior regions are connected via the inferior and middle longitudinal fasciculi, branches of which may allow information flow from and to the mid‐MTG.
Chapter 22
1. Figure 22.1 Model of the production processes (Levelt, Willem J. M., Speaking: From Intention to Articulation, figure 1.1, page 9,
Chapter 23
1. Figure 23.1 Developing language skills such as looking and listening, phonetic perception, speech segmentation, and word learning together contribute to real‐time language comprehension in the first few years of life.
Chapter 24
1. Figure 24.1 The SICI Continuum. ‘SICI’ is an acronym for four factors (shape, individuation, concreteness, and imageability) that contribute to the ease or difficulty of learning nouns and verbs. The concepts that these words represent lie on a continuum defined by the reliability of the concept’s shape, the ease with which the concept can be individuated from other items, the concreteness of the concept to sensory systems, and the degree to which the word elicits a mental image. Although nouns typically precede verbs in vocabulary acquisition, this pattern is a by‐product of the SICI continuum.
Chapter 25
1. Figure 25.1 Hypothetical U‐shaped development.
Chapter 26
1. Figure 26.1 VP truncation model of root Infinitives: Full CP projection vs. VP truncation.

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