Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Ionic Liquids
1.1 Prologue
1.2 The Definition of an Ionic Liquid
1.3 A Brief Perspective
1.4 Aprotic Versus Protic ILs
1.5 An Overview of IL Applications
1.6 Key Properties and Techniques for Understanding ILs
1.7 New Materials Based on ILs
1.8 Nomenclature and Abbreviations
References
Chapter 2: The Structure of Ions that Form Ionic Liquids
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Ionic Interactions and the Melting Point
2.3 Effect of Ion Size and Crystal Packing
2.4 Charge Delocalization and Shielding
2.5 Ion Asymmetry
2.6 Influence of Cation Substituents
2.7 Degrees of Freedom and Structural Disorder
2.8 Short-Range Interactions – Hydrogen Bonding
2.9 Dications and Dianions
2.10 T m Trends in Other IL Families
2.11 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 3: Structuring of Ionic Liquids
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Ionicity, Ion Pairing and Ion Association
3.3 Short-Range Structuring
3.4 Structural Heterogeneity and Domain Formation
3.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Structure
3.6 Experimental Probes of Structure
3.7 Simulation Approaches to Understanding Structure
3.8 Structuring at Solid Interfaces
3.9 Ionic Liquid Structure in Confined Spaces
3.10 Impact of Structure on Reactivity and Application
3.11 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Synthesis of Ionic Liquids
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Synthesis of ILs
4.3 Characterization and Analysis of ILs
4.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 5: Physical and Thermal Properties
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Phase Transitions and Thermal Properties
5.3 Surface and Tribological Properties
5.4 Transport Properties and their Inter-relationships
5.5 Properties of Ionic Liquid Mixtures
5.6 Protic ILs, Proton Transfer, and Mixtures
5.7 Deep Eutectic Solvents and Solvate ILs
5.8 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 6: Solvent Properties of Ionic Liquids: Applications in Synthesis and Separations
6.1 Introduction – Solvency and Intermolecular Forces
6.2 Liquid–Liquid Phase Equilibrium
6.3 Gas Solubility and Applications
6.4 Synthetic Chemistry in ILs – Selected Examples
6.5 Inorganic Materials Synthesis
6.6 Biomass Dissolution
6.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 7: Electrochemistry of and in Ionic Liquids
7.1 Basic Principles of Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Media
7.2 The Electrochemical Window of Ionic Liquids
7.3 Redox Processes in ILs
7.4 Electrodeposition and Cycling of Metals in ILs
7.5 Electrosynthesis in Ionic Liquids
7.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 8: Electrochemical Device Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Batteries
8.3 Fuel Cells
8.4 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Thermoelectrochemical Cells
8.5 Supercapacitors
8.6 Actuators
8.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 9: Biocompatibility and Biotechnology Applications of Ionic Liquids
9.1 Biocompatibility of Ionic Liquids
9.2 Ionic Liquids from Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients
9.3 Biomolecule Stabilization in IL Media
9.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Ionic Liquids
Figure 1.1 Illustration of the difference between the volatilization of PILs, where neutral species evaporate into the gas phase and aprotic ILs that exist as tightly bound ion pairs in the gas phase.
Chapter 2: The Structure of Ions that Form Ionic Liquids
Figure 2.1 Interaction energies for (a) uncharged atoms and (b) ions.
Figure 2.2 Free-energy change with temperature for a solid and a liquid.
Figure 2.3 Within a sea of ions, there will be a combination of attractive forces (e.g. between cation and anion) and repulsive forces (e.g. between cation and cation).
Figure 2.4 Effect of alkyl chain length, n , on the temperature at which different [Cn + salts become liquid. This transition temperature represents either the T g (mostly likely those data points below about −50 °C, marked with hollow symbols) or T m . (Data from López-Martin et al . 2007 [7].)
Figure 2.5 Packing diagrams for [NMe4 ][BF4 ] viewed down the c -axis showing (a) full unit cell contents (the [BF4 ]− ions are shown with their measured disorder) and (b) charged atoms only (N+ shown in blue, charge center of [BF4 ]− shown in orange) [4]. Packing diagrams for [Prop]Br as viewed down the c -axis showing (c) full unit cell contents and (d) charged atoms only (N+ shown in blue, Br− shown in red).
Figure 2.6 (a) Charge density on the dicyanamide (left) and [NTf2 ]− (right) anions. The blue and red colors represent negative and positive charge density, respectively. (Izgorodina 2011 [18]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.) (b) Space-filled structure showing the steric shielding of the N+ (shown in blue) in the N -methyl-N -butylpyrrolidinium cation.
Figure 2.7 Examples of anions with delocalized charges.
Figure 2.8 The structure of [C3 mpyr]Cl shown with 50% thermal ellipsoids (hydrogen atoms are shown by spheres of set size, as these are placed in geometrically fixed idealized positions) [22].
Figure 2.9 Examples of asymmetric charge-delocalized anions.
Figure 2.10 Cation structure and T m values for the salts when paired with the [PF6 ]− anion.
Figure 2.11 Two conformers of the [NTf2 ]− anion.
Figure 2.12 Strength of a hydrogen bond has both distance and angle criteria.
Figure 2.13 Structures of example dications, and the T m of the salts using [NTf2 ]− anions.
Chapter 3: Structuring of Ionic Liquids
Figure 3.1 Gas-phase geometry of [P4,4,4,4 ][Cl] by molecular orbital theory calculations.
Figure 3.2 Probability distributions of (a) the anions and (b) the imidazolium cations around an imidazolium cation derived from the EPSR model for liquid [C1 mim]Cl, [C1 mim][PF6 ], and [C1 mim][NTf2 ]. For anion distributions in the top panel (a), the contour level was chosen to enclose the top 5% of the molecules, while for the cation distributions in lower panel (b), the contours enclose the top 20% of molecules each in the distance range 0–9 Å.
Figure 3.3 Snapshot presenting the fitted ethylammonium nitrate bulk structure at thermal equilibrium (298 K). From left to right, the front face of the 3D simulation box of (a) 500 [EtNH3 ]+ cations and 500 [NO3 ]− anions, (b) apolar –C–C– domains only (–NH3 and NO3 omitted), and (c) anionic 500 [NO3 ]− only (the 500 [EtNH3 ]+ omitted). Atom coloring is C (gray), H (white), N (blue), O (red).
Figure 3.4 Dependence of D spacing on the length n of the alkyl chain on the cation [21].
Figure 3.5 Raman spectra of [ethylimidazolium][NTf2 ] at 20 °C and 140 °C. The fitting (Lorentzian) components corresponding to the cis and trans contributions are shown in red (solid line) and blue (dashed line), respectively, and the structures of the conformers are shown on the left. The spectra show that the relative population of trans conformer decreases (and cis increases) with temperature.
Figure 3.6 Example of a radial distribution function plot, redrawn from a study on [C6 mim][NTf2 ] [43]. RDFs are taken between the central nitrogen of the anion and the center of mass of the imidazolium cation. Black line: cation–anion, red line: anion–anion, blue line: cation–cation. It is evident that the polar network extends over several nanometers without losing the correlation between shells of ions of opposing sign.
Figure 3.7 Snapshots of simulation boxes containing 700 ions of [C4 mim][PF6 ] (left, length of box, l = 49.8 Å) and [C6 mim][PF6 ] (right, length of box, l = 52.8 Å). Red versus green color shows charged (polar) versus nonpolar domains, respectively, and aggregation of the alkyl chains in nonpolar domains when the alkyl side chain of the IL is longer than or equal to four.
Figure 3.8 Side view of the first adsorbed layer of ionic liquids [C2 mim][NTf2 ] (left) and [C8 mim][NTf2 ] (right) on mica. Atoms of the cation are largely in blue or black. The atoms of the mica substrate are red, yellow, and purple. This is the result from one set of simulations – two sets are compared in Ref. [49].
Figure 3.9 Representative snapshot extracted from the simulation of [C4 mim][PF6 ] and carbide-derived carbon nanoporous electrodes. Green spheres: [PF6 ]− ; red spheres: [C4 mim]+ ; blue rods: carbon–carbon bonds.
Chapter 4: Synthesis of Ionic Liquids
Scheme 4.1 (a) General mechanism of quaternization. (b) Synthesis of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide [C2 mim]Br.
Scheme 4.2 General mechanism for the alkylation of 1-methylimidazole with methyltriflate to produce 1,3-dimethylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate [C1 mim][CF3 SO3 ].
Scheme 4.3 Generalized metathesis reaction for exchanging anions.
Scheme 4.4 Synthesis of [C2 mim][BF4 ] via a two-step reaction: (a) quaternization and (b) metathesis.
Scheme 4.5 Resin-based ion-exchange reaction.
Scheme 4.6 Synthesis of [Ch][Ac] via a two-step ion-exchange reaction.
Scheme 4.7 Synthesis of [C2 mim][BF4 ] via a methylcarbonate salt.
Scheme 4.8 (a) Schematic of a microreactor used to synthesize N -3-(3-trimethoxysilylpropyl)-1-methyl imidazolium chloride via a flow process. (Löwe et al. (2010) [14]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.) (b) Conventional method of synthesizing N -3-(3-trimethoxysilylpropyl)-1-methyl imidazolium chloride via reflux.
Scheme 4.9 Alkylation of 1-methyl imidazole with methyl-trifluoromethanesulfonate to produce 1-methyl-3-methyl imidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate [C1 mim][CF3 SO3 ].
Scheme 4.10 Formation of the solvate ionic liquid [Li(G4)][NTf2 ] from equivalent mixtures of [G4] and Li[NTf2 ].
Scheme 4.11 Synthesis of an alkoxy-ammonium salt.
Scheme 4.12 Synthesis of the zwitterionic liquid 1-methylimidazolium-3-(propanesulfonate) via the reaction between N -methyl imidazole and propanesultone.
Scheme 4.13 (a) Synthesis of 3-butyl-1-(butyl-4-sulfonyl)imidazolium zwitterion and (b) reaction between the zwitterion and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid to form the Bronsted acid IL 3-butyl-1-(butyl-4-sulfonyl)imidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate.
Scheme 4.14 One-pot synthesis of imidazolium-based mixture ILs with various cations and a common anion.
Figure 4.1 Synthesis of a polymer IL from an IL. (Tomé and Marrucho 2016 [36]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Scheme 4.15 Synthesis of a polymerized methacryloyl-functionalized imidazolium IL. (Yuan and Antonietti 2011 [39]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Scheme 4.16 Synthesis of n -butylammonium acetate.
Scheme 4.17 Synthesis of an amino acid-based IL.
Scheme 4.18 Preparation of a chiral oxazolinium salt from (S )-valine methyl ester. (Baudequin et al. 2005 [45]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Chapter 5: Physical and Thermal Properties
Figure 5.1 DSC traces showing examples of typical thermal behavior of ILs (a) T g only, (b) T g , crystallization, and melt, and (c) solid–solid phase transition(s) before the melt, as seen in organic ionic plastic crystals.
Figure 5.2 Entropy as a function of temperature illustrating the Kauzman Paradox.
Figure 5.3 Effect of ion pair volume on the glass transition.
Figure 5.4 A disc of a typical organic ionic plastic crystal (OIPC), in this case [C2 mpyr][NTf2 ] being removed with a scalpel blade.
Figure 5.5 Illustration of the difference between the volatilization of PILs, where neutral species evaporate into the gas phase, and aprotic ILs that can exist as tightly bound ion pairs in the gas phase. (Adapted from Earle et al . 2006 [10] with permission from Nature Publishing Group.)
Figure 5.6 Dynamic equilibrium of DIMCARB.
Figure 5.7 (a) Typical rising temperature thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) used to determine the onset of decomposition. (Armel et al. 2011 [23]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.), and (b) example plot showing the time taken for 1% degradation of an IL, determined by a series of isothermal TGA runs at different temperatures. (Baranyai et al. (2004) [24]. Reproduced with permission from CSIRO Publishing.)
Figure 5.8 (a) Proposed decomposition of the NTf2 anion followed by (b) possible mechanisms of attack on the [C2 mim] cation, in [C2 mim][NTf2 ] [35] and (c) possible decomposition pathways for [C4 mim][Cl] and [C4 mim][PF6 ] [34].
Figure 5.9 Potential energy profile calculated by ab initio computational methods during the motion of an iodide ion from one face (behind) to the other (in front) of the imidazolium ring. The maxima at around 160 and 240 ° represent the highest barriers (∼16 kJ mol−1 ) to the motion. The equivalent barrier in dimethylethylimidazolium iodide is >40 kJ mol−1 .
Figure 5.10 Simulated impedance plane plot for a 4000 Ω electrolyte resistance (R el ).
Figure 5.11 Walden plot of molar conductivity versus inverse viscosity for a range of ionic liquids.
Figure 5.12 Correlations between (a) molecular volume and viscosity and (b) molecular volume and conductivity; filled squares: [Cn n 4 ] or [PF6 ] salts; circles: [Cn 2 ] salts; diamonds [Cn 2 ] salts.
Figure 5.13 Binary phase diagram for two solids.
Figure 5.14 Eutectic formation in a binary mixture of salts.
Figure 5.15 Structure of [Me-DBU][NTf2 ].
Figure 5.16 Viscosity data for mixtures of [C4 mim][Me2 PO4 ] and [C4 mim][NTf2 ] fitted to Eq. (5.16) (dashed line) and Eq. (5.18) (solid line).
Figure 5.17 Molar conductivity data for mixtures of [C4 mim][Me2 PO4 ] and [C4 mim][NTf2 ], using both impedance spectroscopy (Λm , Imp) and the self-diffusion coefficients (Λm , NMR), fitted to Eq. (5.19).
Figure 5.18 Walden plot data for addition of various ILs to [C3 mpyr][NTf2 ] [65]. The common starting point in each mixture series is [C3 mpyr][NTf2 ], shown by the arrow.
Figure 5.19 Deviations ΔW of the data from the ideal line in the Walden plot with increasing concentrations of [NH4 ][SCN] in [C2 mim][OAc] and [C2 mim][EtOSO3 ].
Figure 5.20 Four possible outcomes in protic ionic liquids (a) mostly un-ionized acid and base; (b) hydrogen-bonded acid–base pairs (no proton transfer); (c) mostly ionized PIL (proton transfer has occurred, independent ions); (d) associated PIL (proton transfer has occurred, but ions associated through hydrogen bonding).
Figure 5.21 (a) Walden plot for binary PIL [dema][HSO4 ] + [dema][NTf2 ] mixtures and (b) ionicity of binary PIL [dema][HSO4 ] and [dema][NTf2 ] mixtures at 30 °C.
Chapter 6: Solvent Properties of Ionic Liquids: Applications in Synthesis and Separations
Figure 6.1 Appearance and position of a UCST and LCST near a region of single-phase liquid mixtures.
Figure 6.2 DFT calculations of the interactions between N2 and a variety of IL anions. In the case of the [fap]− anion, there are two modes of interaction in the N2 –anion complex [17].
Scheme 6.3 Formation of three different products from toluene in the presence of different ILs.
Scheme 6.2 Formation of the Wheland intermediate [24].
Scheme 6.3 Heck reaction in the presence of palladium acetate catalyst and IL [25].
Figure 6.3 Imidazolium-based ionic liquid tagged with a palladium complex.
Scheme 6.4 Reaction of cyclopentadiene with dimethyl maleate [31].
Figure 6.4 H-bonding interaction of an imidazolium cation with the carbonyl oxygen of methyl acrylate in the activated complex of a Diels–Alder reaction.
Scheme 6.5 (a) Reaction of acetyl chloride with benzene in the presence of an acidic chloroaluminate IL, and (b) the proposed mechanism of the acylation reaction [36].
Scheme 6.6 (a) Reaction between benzaldehyde and methyl acrylate catalyzed by DABCO, and (b) the proposed general mechanism of the role of the nucleophilic amine in the Baylis–Hilman reaction [38].
Scheme 6.7 Methanolysis of linalool chloride in [C4 mim][NTf2 ] [42].
Scheme 6.8 Reaction of diethylchlorophosphate with ethanol-d 6 in the presence of various ILs [44].
Figure 6.5 Structure of [C2 mim]Br-zeolite template material consisting of hexagonal prismatic units with the formula Al8 (PO4 )10 H3 ·3C6 H11 N2 .
Chapter 7: Electrochemistry of and in Ionic Liquids
Figure 7.1 Schematic of a three-electrode electrochemical cell. (CE = counter-electrode; RE = reference electrode; WE = working electrode).
Figure 7.2 Scanning potential techniques: current–voltage profile during a cyclic voltammetry experiment.
Figure 7.3 Comparison of an aqueous reference electrode and a nonaqueous reference electrode, both composed of a metal (Ag) electrode separated from the bulk electrolyte by a fritted tube.
Figure 7.4 Electrochemical windows of [C2 mim][NTf2 ] (red) and [C2 C1 mim][NTf2 ] (blue) versus I− /I− 3 .
Figure 7.5 (a) Electrochemical window of [C4 mim][BF4 ]+16 wt% Cl− at (1) 25 °C, (2) 40 °C, (3) 60 °C, (4) 70 °C, and (5) 80 °C; (Li et al. 2006 [11]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.) (b) Electrochemical window of (1) vacuum-dried (24 h, 60 °C) [C4 mim][BF4 ], (2) atmospheric [C4 mim][BF4 ], and (3) wet [C4 mim][BF4 ] at 25 °C. (O'Mahony et al. 2008 [12]. Reproduced with permission of American Chemical Society.)
Figure 7.6 Electroactive species that can be used as internal calibrants in ILs.
Figure 7.7 Examples of redox-active species used in DSSCs.
Figure 7.8 CVs of a 10 mmol −1 solution of [Co(bpy)3 ]2+ in [C2 mim][B(CN)4 ] at different scan rates (20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 800, and 1000 mV s−1 ) on a glassy carbon electrode. Each CV shows the two redox reactions: one (at positive potentials) attributed to the [Co(bpy)3 ]2+/3+ redox couple, and the other (at negative potentials) to [Co(bpy)3 ]1+/2+ .
Figure 7.9 (a) Reduction of benzophenone in a dry IL [27]. (b) Reversible one-electron electrochemical oxidation of TEMPO.
Figure 7.10 Cyclic voltammograms obtained for the reduction of [Bu4 N]4 [α-S2 W18 O62 ] at a 3-mm diameter glass carbon electrode, at the scan rate 0.1 V s−1 . (a) Solution (5 mM) in [C4 mim][BF4 ] and (b) adhered solid in contact with [C4 mim][BF4 ].
Figure 7.11 Examples of redox-active ILs, where the electroactive species are incorporated into the cation or anion or both.
Figure 7.12 Cyclic voltammograms of 0.1 M (black line) or 0.2 M (red line) ZnX2 in an [NTf2 ]− IL and also 0.2 M·ZnX2 with 2.5 wt% water added (blue line) versus Zn/Zn2+ at 25 °C (where X = [NTf2 ]− ) on a glassy carbon electrode.
Figure 7.13 Overview of possible electrosynthesis reactions, showing reactive intermediates that are formed electrochemically and a range of possible subsequent reactions to form the final product.
Figure 7.14 Electrochemical window of fluoride-containing ionic liquids.
Figure 7.15 Electrochemical fluorination of pthalides in an ionic liquid.
Figure 7.16 Electrochemical synthesis of organic carbamates in an ionic liquid.
Figure 7.17 Electrochemical reduction of benzoyl chloride to benzil in an ionic liquid.
Figure 7.18 Electroreductive coupling of organic halides in an ionic liquid.
Chapter 8: Electrochemical Device Applications
Figure 8.1 Schematic of lithium-ion battery (arrows indicate direction of Li+ motion during discharge and the direction of ‘normal’ current in the circuit (electron flow is in the opposite direction).
Figure 8.2 Cyclic voltammogram of Li deposition and stripping in an IL electrolyte, comparing the neat [P1,1,1,i4] [fsi] and solutions of 0.5, 3.2, and 3.8 mol kg−1 Li[fsi] in [P1,1,1,i4] [fsi] at a Ni working electrode with a potential sweep rate of 20 mV s−1 at 25 °C.
Figure 8.3 Dependence of total ion conductivity and viscosity as a function of Li+ concentration in ‘inorganic–organic’ ILs based on mixtures of [P1,1,1,i4 ][fsi] and Li[fsi] at 20, 50 and 80 °C. In this mixture, a concentration of Li[fsi] = 3.2 mol kg−1 corresponds to an equimolar mixture of Li[fsi] and [P1,1,1,i4 ][fsi]. Beyond this point, the IL contains more Li+ ions than [P1,1,1,i4 ] cations.
Figure 8.4 Charging of a Li|inorganic–organic IL|LiCoO2 cell compared to one containing a standard organic carbonate electrolyte.
Figure 8.5 Li(glyme) solvate structure in a solvate IL.
Figure 8.6 Schematic of the operation of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. The PEM is sandwiched between two porous, electrically conductive, and catalytically active electrodes.
Figure 8.7 (a) Schematic of H+ transport in a PIL of type [BH+ ][A− ]. Here, the protonated cations [BH+ ] of the PIL deprotonate at the cathode and generate free base species [B], which migrate toward the anode to serve as a vehicle for the H+ species formed by the hydrogen oxidation reaction. The anions [A− ] of the PIL, due to their low basicity, either serve as the proton defects (hopping sites) or can also serve as carriers (vehicles) if sufficiently basic. (Rana et al. 2012 [32]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.) (b) Examples of proton-conducting protic ILs and OIPCs, where dema = diethylmethylammoniun and dmeda = N ,N -dimethylethylenediamine.
Figure 8.8 Redox shuttling in a dye-sensitized solar cell or a thermoelectrochemical cell, with the CoII/III (bpy)3 redox couple as an example.
Figure 8.9 (a) Configuration of a simple electrochemical double-layer capacitor and (b) the ion distribution and potential profile at the positive electrode, where φM is the potential at the electrode surface and φs is the potential of the Stern layer. Further from the electrode is the Gouy–Chapman diffuse layer.
Chapter 9: Biocompatibility and Biotechnology Applications of Ionic Liquids
Figure 9.1 Toxicity data (EC50 values) as a function of cation side-chain length n in halide and [BF4 ]− salts; Black squares: Chlorella vugaris in [Cn n V. fischeric in [Cn 4 ]; Green triangles: S. obliquus in [Cn
Figure 9.2 Biodegradable nicotinic and pyridinic cation derivatives.
Figure 9.3 Preparation of propantheline cyclamate as a dual-active pharmaceutical ionic liquid.
Figure 9.4 Confocal microscopy images of (i) blue stained nucleic acids and (ii) a yellow fluorescent protein expressing pDNA transfected into HEK 293T cells after storage in phosphate buffered saline solution (left), 20% [Ch][dhp] (middle), and 50% [Ch][dhp] (right) after 28 days of storage at 37 °C. The much higher rate of transfection on the right indicates much greater stability of the pDNA during storage in the 50% [Ch][dhp].
Figure 9.5 Stabilization of small interfering RNA in hydrated [Ch][dhp].
Figure 9.6 Action of added acid on a choline H2 PO4 − /HPO4 2− ([Ch][dhp/mhp]) buffer ionic liquid. The spectra are of phenol red indicator present in the IL. The addition of up to 50 mol% acid produces little change in the spectrum of the indicator. Adding 250 mol% acid, which swamps the buffer, produces a distinct color change and shift in the spectrum. (MacFarlane et al. 2010 [20]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 9.7 Fluorescence micrographs of L-929 cells growing actively on [Ch]tartrate cross-linked collagen materials. Scale bars represent 50 mm.
List of Tables
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Ionic Liquids
Table 1.1 Glossary of structures and nomenclature abbreviations used in this book
Chapter 5: Physical and Thermal Properties
Table 5.1 Surface tension (γ) of ionic liquids at 20 °C (in mN m−1 )
Table 5.2 Viscosity for various ILs in mPa.s at T = 25 °C
Table 5.3 Ionic conductivities of various ILs in mS/cm at T = 25 °C
Chapter 6: Solvent Properties of Ionic Liquids: Applications in Synthesis and Separations
Table 6.1 Distribution coefficient D for Cd2+ and Cu2+ between IL and aqueous solution at pH 7 ± 5%
Table 6.2 Henry's Law constants for a variety of gases in different ionic liquids at 298 K
Table 6.3
Chapter 9: Biocompatibility and Biotechnology Applications of Ionic Liquids
Table 9.1 Protic pharmaceutical ILs and modulation of their solubility properties
Domínguez de María, P. (ed.)
Ionic Liquids in Biotransformations and Organocatalysis
Solvents and Beyond
2012
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Ohno, H. (ed.)
Electrochemical Aspects of Ionic Liquids, 2nd edition
2 Edition
2011
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Wasserscheid, P., Welton, T. (eds.)
Ionic Liquids in Synthesis
2 Edition
2008
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ISBN: 978-3-527-62119-4
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Endres, F., MacFarlane, D., Abbott, A. (eds.)
Electrodeposition from Ionic Liquids
2008
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Wasserscheid, P., Stark, A. (eds.)
Handbook of Green
Chemistry - Green Solvents
Volume 6 - Ionic Liquids
2010
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Prechtl, M. (ed.)
Nanocatalysis in Ionic Liquids
2017
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Fundamentals of Ionic Liquids
From Chemistry to Applications
Douglas R. MacFarlane, Mega Kar and Jennifer M. Pringle
Authors
Prof. Douglas R. MacFarlane
Monash University
School of Chemistry
Wellington Rd
Clayton
3800 Melbourne
Australia
Dr. Mega Kar
Monash University
School of Chemistry
Wellington Rd
Clayton
3800 Melbourne
Australia
Dr. Jennifer M. Pringle
Deakin University
Institute for Frontier Materials
221 Burwood Hwy
Burwood
3125 Melbourne
Australia
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