Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of Contributors

Preface

Chapter 1: Fundamental Biochemical and Biotechnological Principles of Biomass Growth and Use

1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Comparison of Fossil-Based versus Bio-Based Raw Materials
1.3 The Nature of Bio-Based Raw Materials
1.4 General Considerations Surrounding Bio-Based Raw Materials
1.5 Research Advances Made Recently
1.6 Prominent Scientists Working in this Arena
1.7 Summary
1.8 Study Problems
1.9 Key References
References

Chapter 2: Fundamental Science and Applications for Biomaterials

2.1 Introduction
2.2 What are the Biopolymers that Encompass the Structure and Function of Lignocellulosics?
2.3 Chemical Reactivity of Cellulose, Heteropolysaccharides, and Lignin
2.4 Composite as a Unique Application for Renewable Materials
2.5 Question for Further Consideration
References

Chapter 3: Conversion Technologies

3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Energy Scenario at Global Level
3.3 Biomass
3.4 Biomass Conversion Methods
3.5 Metrics to Assist the Transition Towards Sustainable Production of Bioenergy and Biomaterials
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key References
References

Chapter 4: Characterization Methods and Techniques

4.1 Philosophy Statement
4.2 Understanding the Characteristics of Biomass
4.3 Taking Precautions Prior to Setting Up Experiments for Biomass Analysis
4.4 Classifying Biomass Sizes for Proper Analysis
4.5 Moisture Content of Biomass and Importance of Drying Samples Prior to Analysis
4.6 When the Carbon is Burned
4.7 Structural Cell Wall Analysis, What To Look For
4.8 Hydrolyzing Biomass and Determining Its Composition
4.9 Determining Cell Wall Structures Through Spectroscopy and Scattering
4.10 Examining the Size of the Biopolymers: Molecular Weight Analysis
4.11 Intricacies of Understanding Lignin Structure
4.12 Questions for Further Consideration
References

Chapter 5: Introduction to Life-Cycle Assessment and Decision Making Applied to Forest Biomaterials

5.1 Introduction
5.2 LCA Components Overview
5.3 Life-Cycle Assessment Steps
5.4 LCA Tools for Forest Biomaterials
References

Chapter 6: First Principles of Pretreatment and Cracking Biomass to Fundamental Building Blocks

6.1 Introduction
6.2 What Difference Should Be Considered Between Wood and Agricultural Biomass?
6.3 Define Pretreatment
6.4 Steps of Production of Cellulosic Ethanol
6.5 What Are the Key Considerations for Making a Successful Pretreatment Technology?
6.6 What Are the General Methods Used in Pretreatment?
6.7 What Is Currently Being Done and What Are the Advances?
6.8 Summary
References

Chapter 7: Green Route to Prepare Renewable Polyesters from Monomers: Enzymatic Polymerization

7.1 Philosophic Statement
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Lipase-Catalyzed Ring-Opening Polymerizations of Cyclic Monomeric Esters (Lactones and Lactides)
7.4 Lipase-Catalyzed Polycondensation
List of Abbreviations
References

Chapter 8: Oil-Based and Bio-Derived Thermoplastic Polymer Blends and Composites

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Oil-Based and Bio-Derived Thermoplastic Polymer Blends
8.3 Thermoplastic Composites with Natural Fillers
8.4 Conclusion
8.5 Questions for Further Consideration
References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Fundamental Biochemical and Biotechnological Principles of Biomass Growth and Use

Figure 1.1 Global chemical clusters.
Figure 1.2 Biomass applications and material flow (Germany 2008) (Raschka and Carus, [2012]; Anton and Steinicke, [2012]).
Figure 1.3 Expected biomass trade routes by 2020 (TWh) (King and Hagan, [2010]).

Chapter 2: Fundamental Science and Applications for Biomaterials

Figure 2.1 The archetypal structures of the most abundant biomaterials on the planet. (a) The repeating unit (N-acetylglucosamine) of the biopolymer chitin. (b) The repeating unit (glucose) of the biopolymer cellulose.
Figure 2.2 A simplified representation of the stereochemical asymmetry present in cellulose: the existence of a non-reducing end group (NREG) versus an opposite reducing end group (REG) give cellulose different terminal chemistries.
Scheme 2.1 A simplified pictorial summary of the contextual development of cellulose fibers: the evolution of cellulose chains into microfibrils, an elementary unit in cellulose, which contribute to the higher order elementary structures (e.g., the macrofibril is composed of a bundle of microfibrils).
Figure 2.3 A representation of the unit cell mode of chain packing for cellulose. (a) The triclinic unit cell (Iα). (b) The monoclinic unit cell (Iβ).
Figure 2.4 Various structural representations of xylan. (a) Simple xylan backbone composed of non-functionalized xylose monomers. (b) Xylan backbone with a pendant 4-O-methylhexenuronic acid residue at the 2-carbon. (c) Representation of a xylan backbone decorated with pendant acetyl groups.
Figure 2.5 Representative structure of the galactoglucomannan heteropolysaccharide. Note that the glucomannan backbone has several Ac (acetyl) groups decorating it, while it possesses a pendant galactose residue on the 6 carbon of a mannose residue.
Figure 2.6 A generic representation of the lignin that is believed to be localized within angiosperm wood cells.
Figure 2.7 The generic lignin monomeric structural motifs that constitute the totality of all of the lignin polymers that are extant in nature.
Figure 2.8 A fluorescence micrograph obtained from a cross-section of wood cells. Shown in the micrograph are the major elements of the wood cell starting from the inner lumen (dark, no fluorescence), normal lignified cell wall (second part extending from the inner dark sphere), to the outer middle lamella.
Figure 2.9 Shown is a simple cartoon that illustrates the effect of introducing water molecules within the H-bonded network structure of cellulose.
Figure 2.10 Chemical structures and physical schematic representation of (a) amylose starch and (b) amylopectin starch.
Figure 2.11 Schematic representation of the phase transitions of starch during thermal processing and aging.
Figure 2.12 Growth of the plastics worldwide.

Chapter 3: Conversion Technologies

Figure 3.1 Simple theoretical models of the combined output from a group of gas or oil fields: both graphs assume that fields are found 1 year apart, larger fields are found earlier. (a) Field production follows a trapezoidal profile, possibly typical of gas fields. (b) Field production follows a profile typical of oil fields, that is, a rapid build up, followed by a slow decline.
Figure 3.2 Relationship between EROI of an energy resource and percentage of available energy that can be used per unit of this resource. Light grey area represents fraction of energy of the resource that can be delivered to the economy, dark grey area represents fraction of energy of the resource that is spent to extract/produce resource itself. Please note the net energy cliff at EROI lower than 10. X-axis in reverse order.
Figure 3.3 Biomass and fossil fuels – origins and energy content. Biomass is an important element of carbon cycle. In the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are converted into carbohydrates and other structures called biomass. Biomass can be then digested or combusted to recover stored chemical energy and release oxidised compounds: carbon dioxide and water. Fossil fuels are biomass that underwent fossilisation process, that is, slow partial decomposition in the absence of oxygen powered by heat and pressure from geological sources. In a process of fossilisation, biomass lost significant content of oxygen and became composed of hydrocarbons having higher energy content than original biomass.
Figure 3.4 Ultimate biological compounds produced via CO₂ fixation in chloroplasts during the process of photosynthesis divided according to their function and chemical structures.
Figure 3.5 Energy released (ΔE) from complete combustion of typical fuels and their major combustion products. Note: discontinuous y axis; * bituminous coal; ** herbaceous biomass. Values from GREET, The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use In Transportation Model. US DOE.
Figure 3.6 Complete combustion of methane, overview of bond energy changes. Energy investment phase in marked with upward arrows, energy payoff phase with downward arrows. The net energy gain is the difference in energy between reactants and products.
Figure 3.7 Schematic view of the variety of commercial (solid lines) and developing bioenergy routes (dotted lines) from biomass feedstocks through thermochemical, chemical, biochemical and biological conversion routes to heat, power, CHP and liquid or gaseous fuels. Note: commercial products are marked with an asterisk; ¹ Parts of feedstock can be used in other routes; ² Routes can yield co-products; ³ Biomass upgrading can include densification; ⁴ Anaerobic digestion also produces minor gasses; ⁵ Including related thermochemical routes like liquefaction.
Figure 3.8 Summary of thermochemical transformations in thermochemical conversion processes. Four major transformation steps are annotated in grey boxes; major products from each transformation are outlined in solid lines; common processes are in solid arrows, specific routes are in dashed arrows, abbreviations: C, combustion; G, gasification; P, pyrolysis.
Figure 3.9 Examples of reactions associated with catalytic bio-oil upgrading.
Figure 3.10 Scheme of transesterification. Biodiesel is synthesised in a chemical reaction of transesterification of an oily feedstock, triglyceride with a short-chain alcohol, usually methanol in the presence of a catalyst. Transesterification yields alkyl esters of fatty acids (biodiesel) and a by-product, glycerol. R_I,II,III alkyl chains of fatty acid (usually C14–C22), and R₁ alkyl group of an alcohol (usually methyl or ethyl).
Figure 3.11 Schematic representation of stepwise oxidation of glucose in an organism compared to its combustion in oxygen. On the left biological decomposition of glucose into compounds of lower energy and ultimately into CO₂ and H₂O with most of the energy collected by carrier molecules such as ATP and NADH. On the right complete combustion of glucose in oxygen with activation energy from external heat source. Please note that substrates and products of both reactions are identical.
Figure 3.12 Overview of major metabolic pathways used for bioenergy production and aerobic respiration. Biomass used as a feedstock for fermentative production of bio-fuels and biochemicals is decomposed into glucose and enters glycolysis or bio-fuel-producing organism. Note: Other hexoses are converted into glucose in vivo, and pentoses will enter the pathway at later stages of glycolysis through pentose phosphate pathway). Oily feedstocks can enter through β-oxidation pathway as acetyl-CoA. * Glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules during glycolysis; ** Butyryl-CoA is formed through condensation of two Acetyl-CoA.

Chapter 4: Characterization Methods and Techniques

Figure 4.1 Biomass characterization diagram shows common characterization techniques for carbohydrates and lignin.
Figure 4.2 HPLC chromatogram of four monosaccharide standards separated by Bio-Rad® Aminex 87P column at 60 °C, flow rate of 06 ml min⁻¹ of 4 mM H₂SO₄.
Figure 4.3 X-ray diffraction spectra of microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel PH-101) shows three methods for calculating Crl: (a) Segal method; (b) peak deconvolution method; and (c) amorphous subtraction method.
Figure 4.4 Illustration of information obtained from CP/MAS ¹³C NMR spectrum of microcrystalline cellulose. C₄ and C₆ regions are typically used for Crl determination and evaluation of changes in inter-/intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
Figure 4.5 ¹³C NMR spectrum of MWL isolated from pine shows various spectral regions.
Figure 4.6 Phosphorylation of lignin with 2-chloro-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaphospholane (TMDP) is fast and reaction products (c) are shown in ³¹P NMR spectrum (b) and lignin modified (a).
Figure 4.7 The 2D HSQC spectra of enzymatic mild acidolysis lignin (EMAL) isolated from hardwood [108].

Chapter 5: Introduction to Life-Cycle Assessment and Decision Making Applied to Forest Biomaterials

Figure 5.1 The three pillars of the triple-bottom-line perspective of sustainability.
Figure 5.2 System boundary diagram of a cradle-to-grave bio-fuels process but excludes indirect land-use change.
Figure 5.3 System boundary diagram of a cradle-to-gate biomass production system excluding processing.
Figure 5.4 Life-cycle inventory data from product systems.
Figure 5.5 Life-cycle assessment software structure.
Figure 5.6 Life-cycle assessment stages.
Figure 5.7 Impact assessment ISO mandatory and optional steps (ISO 14044, 2006).
Figure 5.8 The relationship between end point and midpoint impacts as proposed by the ILCD Handbook (Wolf et al., 2012).
Figure 5.9 Classification of LCI data into midpoint indicators.
Figure 5.10 LCA interest group response to weighting survey used for Eco-indicator 99 weighting method (Goedkoop and Spriensma, 2001).

Chapter 6: First Principles of Pretreatment and Cracking Biomass to Fundamental Building Blocks

Figure 6.1 General structure of lignocellulosic materials.
Figure 6.2 Schematic structure of cellulose molecule.
Figure 6.3 Demonstration of the hydrogen bonding that allows the parallel arrangement of the cellulose polymer chains.
Figure 6.4 (a) Formation of micro- and macrofibrils (fibers) of cellulose and their position in the wall. (b) Magnified view of cellulose microfibril.
Figure 6.5 A schematic structure of the hemicellulose backbone.
Figure 6.6 p-Coumaryl-, coniferyl-, and sinapyl alcohol: major building components of the three-dimensional polymer lignin.
Figure 6.7 Schematic structure of softwood lignin.
Figure 6.8 Cleavage of the ether bond of lignin in alkaline solution (Lin and Lin, 2002).
Figure 6.9 Hydrolysis of cellulose in acidic media (Krassig and Schurz, 2002).
Figure 6.10 Hydrolysis of cellulose in alkaline conditions (Krassig and Schurz, 2002).
Figure 6.11 Schematic mechanism of effects of pretreatment on lignocellulosic biomass.
Figure 6.12 The major mechanism of acid hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds.
Figure 6.13 Separation of lignocellulosic biomass components in acidic and alkaline pretreatment conditions.
Figure 6.14 The mechanism of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose.

Chapter 7: Green Route to Prepare Renewable Polyesters from Monomers: Enzymatic Polymerization

Figure 7.1 The chemical structure of some lactones derived from renewable resources.
Figure 7.2 Lipase-catalyzed ROP of lactones.
Figure 7.3 Lipase-catalyzed polycondensation to obtain polyester via (a) AB-type monomers, (b) AA-, BB-type monomers.
Figure 7.4 Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of bio-based polyester via a two-stage method in diphenyl ether.
Figure 7.5 Lipase-catalyzed polycondensation to prepare linear polyester with free hydroxyl pendant groups [78].
Figure 7.6 Lipase-catalyzed polycondensation of ricinoleic acid or methyl ricinoleate followed by cross-linking reaction using dicumyl peroxide [89].
Figure 7.7 N435-catalyzed polycondensation of dimethyl 2,5-furandicarboxylate and aliphatic diol using two-stage method in diphenyl ether.

Chapter 8: Oil-Based and Bio-Derived Thermoplastic Polymer Blends and Composites

Figure 8.1 Influence of TEC (a) and ATBC (b) on glass transition temperature of PLA ref. [5].
Figure 8.2 Stress–strain curves of neat PLA and PLA modified with four different ionic liquids.
Figure 8.3 (a) The influence of plant sources in derived starch products. (b) The different stress and strain behaviour of pure amylopectin (1) and pure amylose (2).
Figure 8.4 (a) Tensile strength of low-density polyethylene/thermoplastic starch with and without zeolite 5A. (b) Elongation at break of low-density polyethylene/thermoplastic starch blend with and without zeolite 5A.
Figure 8.5 Thermal analysis results for low-density polyethylene/PLA blend with 4 phr of low-density polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride.
Figure 8.6 SEM analysis of (a) PBAT/TPS (b) PBAT-g-MA/TPS (c) PBAT/TPS/C30B (d) PBAT-g-MA/TPS/C30B.
Figure 8.7 Image of 50 kGy irradiated Pc080/TPS20.
Figure 8.8 Effect of irradiation on the variation of Young's modulus for different amounts of starch contained in the blends.
Figure 8.9 Trabant car, produced in 1958 in the German Democratic Republic with main parts made of composites with natural fillers.
Figure 8.10 Example of wood–plastic composites application in decking market [7trust.com, green products].
Figure 8.11 Example of turbo mixer, developed by Valente et al. (University of Rome, La Sapienza) [ref. 51] to optimize and analyse the effect of compatibilizing agent in natural fibre–polymer composites. The turbo mixer works through kinetic energy developed by rotating blades as only heat source. Valente et al. 2016 [52]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
Figure 8.12 Polypropylene-grafted-maleic anhydride.
Figure 8.13 Working mechanism of polyolefin-grafted-maleic anhydride as coupling agent (elliptical shape is the maleic anhydride graft): (a) compound formation because of the weak interaction between plant fibres (hydrophilic) and polymers (hydrophobic); (b) composite formation thanks to the interaction of MAPP maleated graft with plant fibres and polymeric MAPP chains mixing with polymer matrix.
Figure 8.14 Tensile strength trend of polypropylene-rice husk flour (PP-RHF) neat and with five different compatibilizing agents.
Figure 8.15 Izod impact strength trend of polypropylene-rice husk flour (PP-RHF) neat and with five different compatibilizing agents.
Figure 8.16 Tensile modulus trend of recycled HDPE from milk bottles, with 30 wt% of Aspen hardwood and 2 or 5 wt% of MAPP.
Figure 8.17 Influence of exothermic (a) and endothermic (b) blowing agents on PVC/wood flour density.
Figure 8.18 Dimensional stability of polypropylene (PP), high-impact polypropylene (HIPP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with different percentages of paper sludge.
Figure 8.19 Flexural strength of polypropylene (PP), high-impact polypropylene (HIPP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with different percentages of paper sludge.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Fundamental Biochemical and Biotechnological Principles of Biomass Growth and Use

Table 1.1 Composition (%) and heat value (MJ kg⁻¹) (Herrmann and Weber, [2011]) of fossil feedstock
Table 1.2 Use of fossil feedstock in different global regions (%) (EKT Interactive Oil and Gas Training, [2014])
Table 1.3 Feedstock mix (%) in German chemical industries (2011) (Benzing, 2013)
Table 1.4 Oil-refinery output from low to high distillation temperature
Table 1.5 Global production volume of bulk chemicals (2010) (Davis, [2011]) and content of carbon
Table 1.6 Milestones in chemical innovation
Table 1.7 Cost of oil production (US$ per barrel) (Birol, [2008])
Table 1.8 Static lifetime (years) of fossil resources (Harald Andruleit, [2011])
Table 1.9 Annual CO₂ emission from various fossil feedstock (million tons; 2012) (Marland, Boden, and Andres, [2007]; Olivier et al., [2014])
Table 1.10 Chemical industry nation's sales and market share (2013)
Table 1.11 Chemical industry region's sales and market share (2013)
Table 1.12 Composition (%) (Michelsen, [1941]) and heat value (MJ kg⁻¹) (Herrmann and Weber, [2011]) of vegeTable biomass and biomass compounds
Table 1.13 World consumption of major vegeTable oil (2007/2008) (USDA, [2009]) and carbon content (75% average assumed)
Table 1.14 The biggest sugar producers, production volume (2012) (USDA, [2013]), and carbon content (43% C in sucrose assumed)
Table 1.15 Most important corn-producing nations 2012 (Statista, [2014]) and carbon content (43% C in sucrose assumed)
Table 1.16 Most important potato-producing nations 2009 (Landesverband der Kartoffelkaufleute Rheinland-Westfalen, [2013])
Table 1.17 Global starch crop production 2013 (FAO, [2014]) (except potato; 2012) and theoretical starch and starch–carbon content according composition given in the text
Table 1.18 Approximate yield derived from 1 ton no. 2 yellow corn with 15.5% moisture (International Starch Institute, [2014])
Table 1.19 Performance of microalgae, corn, and short-rotation trees (Fachagentur nachwachsende Rohstoffe, [2012])
Table 1.20 Leading GM crops (global, 2013) (Compass, 2014)
Table 1.21 Leading areas in GM crop cultivation (million hectare; 2013) (Compass, 2014)
Table 1.22 Renewable energy share of global final energy consumption (2012) (Zervos, [2014])
Table 1.23 Global growth rate of renewable energy capacity and bio-fuels production (%; end 2008–2013) (Zervos, [2014])
Table 1.24 Some semisynthetic antibiotics and their global annual production volume (Franssen, Kircher, and Wohlgemuth, [2010])
Table 1.25 Indications to be treated by monoclonal antibodies and sales volume (Pohl-Appel, [2011])
Table 1.26 Global bioplastics capacities by material type (1000 tons per year; 2013) (European Bioplastics, [2014])
Table 1.31 Share (%) of cost factors in bio-based production of bulk chemicals (Kircher, 2014)
Table 1.27 Options for carbon sources from agricultural, forestry, and industrial side streams and carbon content (global; million tons per year) (Kircher, [2012])
Table 1.28 GHG emission associated with biomass production (% CO₂ fixed in harvested biomass) (Haberl et al., [2012])
Table 1.29 Greenhouse gas sources and climate impact factor as well as share of climate impact weighted for the climate changing potential over the next 100 years (EPA US Environmental Protection Agency, 2014)
Table 1.30 Density, bulk density, and carbon per volume (t m⁻³) of various materials

Chapter 3: Conversion Technologies

Table 3.1 Typical bond energies present in energy carriers and products
Table 3.2 Pyrolysis methods and their variants

Chapter 4: Characterization Methods and Techniques

Table 4.1 Selected characterization methods of structural carbohydrates and lignin
Table 4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of biomass characterization methods and techniques
Table 4.3 ¹³C NMR chemical shift ranges and integration regions of all moieties
Table 4.4 ³¹P NMR chemical shift ranges and integration regions of hydroxyl moieties
Table 4.5 Assignments of carbohydrates/lignin ¹³C–¹H correlation peaks in the 2D HSQC

Chapter 5: Introduction to Life-Cycle Assessment and Decision Making Applied to Forest Biomaterials

Table 5.1 Three common LCA software package options
Table 5.2 US LCI inventory for wood product manufacturing/sawmills
Table 5.3 Midpoint indicators with associated emissions and scale (Bare et al., 2006)
Table 5.4 Greenhouse gas lifetime before decomposition and corresponding global warming potential (GWP) for a 20-year time horizon and a 100-year time horizon (Myhre et al., 2013)
Table 5.5 Normalization factors based on a US citizen's impact over the course of a year in 2008 (Ryberg et al., 2014)
Table 5.6 Ecoindicator weighting values and survey responses (Goedkoop and Spriensma, 2001)

Chapter 6: First Principles of Pretreatment and Cracking Biomass to Fundamental Building Blocks

Table 6.1 Composition of different lignocellulosic materials (Jorgensen et al., 2007)
Table 6.2 Summary of linkages between the monomer units that form the individual polymer lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, and between the polymers to form lignocellulosic biomass
Table 6.3 Functional groups of lignocellulosic biomass
Table 6.4 Main types of fermentation inhibitors and their chemical structures
Table 6.5 The different types of pretreatments and their effects on lignocellulosic biomass

Chapter 8: Oil-Based and Bio-Derived Thermoplastic Polymer Blends and Composites

Table 8.1 Some PLA mechanical features in comparison to traditional polyolefin
Table 8.2 Tensile test results of pure PLA and PLA modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and acetyl tri-n-butyl citrate (ATBC) in different percentages
Table 8.3 Influence of molecular weight and content of triethyl citrate (TEC) and acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) on polylactic acid thermal properties
Table 8.4 The effect of four different ionic liquids on PLA mechanical properties
Table 8.5 Effect of four different ionic liquids on PLA thermal properties
Table 8.6 Main properties of thermoplastic starch plasticized by glycerol and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride [BMIM]Cl
Table 8.7 Composition of polyethylene/thermoplastic starch blend with and without zeolite 5A in the amount of 1–3–5%
Table 8.8 Glass transition temperature and crystallization temperature of low-density polyethylene/thermoplastic starch blend with and without zeolite 5A
Table 8.9 Mechanical and thermal properties of neat PBAT and PBAT/TPS blend modified with maleic anhydride and nanoclay C30B addition
Table 8.10 Comparison between natural and glass fibres [can natural fibres replace glass?]
Table 8.11 Mechanical properties of some natural fibres in comparison to traditional fibres and polymers
Table 8.12 Properties of five MAPP with different maleic anhydride content (MA%), molecular weight ( $c08-math-007$ ) and melt flow index (MFI)
Table 8.13 Thermal properties of neat high-density polyethylene (HDPE) in comparison to HDPE with 20–30–40–50–60 wt% of wood
Table 8.14 Influence of CBAs on average cell size
Table 8.15 Influence of N₂ amount, injection speed, weight reduction and mold temperature on shrinkage, warpage, mechanical properties and cell density of WPC foams
Table 8.16 Comparison of properties and cost between HDPE and WPC foam (weight reduction of 20%)
Table 8.17 Mechanical properties of polyolefin–old newspaper composites compared to polyolefin–glass fibre composites

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Ali S. Ayoub and Lucian A. Lucia to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Title: Introduction to renewable biomaterials : first principles and concepts / edited By Ali S. Ayoub, Lucian A. Lucia.

Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2017019395 (print) | LCCN 2017036356 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118698594 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118698587 (epub) | ISBN 9781119962298 (cloth)

Classification: LCC TP339 (ebook) | LCC TP339 .I595 2017 (print) | DDC 662/.88-dc23

List of Contributors

Ali S. Ayoub

Archer Daniels Midland Company

ADM Research

Chicago, IL

USA

and

North Carolina State University

Department of Forest Biomaterials

Raleigh, NC

USA

Amir Daraei Garmakhany

Department of Food Science and Technology

Toyserkan Faculty of Industrial Engineering

Buali Sina University

Hamedan

Iran

Maurycy Daroch

School of Environment and Energy

Peking University

Shenzhen

China

Jesse Daystar

Department of Forest Biomaterials

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

USA

Manfred Kircher

KADIB-Kircher Advice in Bioeconomy Kurhessenstr.

Frankfurt am Main

Germany

Lucian A. Lucia

Department of Forest Biomaterials

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

USA

Valerie Massardier

INSA de Lyon

IMP/CNRS 5223

Lyon

France

Toufik Naolou

Institute of Biomaterial Science and Berlin-Brandenburg Centre for Regenerative Therapies

Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht

Teltow

Germany

Alessia Quitadamo

INSA de Lyon

IMP/CNRS 5223

Lyon

France

Scott Renneckar

Department of Sustainable Biomaterials

Virginia Tech

Blacksburg, VA

USA

Noppadon Sathitsuksanoh

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Louisville

Louisville, KY

USA

Somayeh Sheykhnazari

Department of Wood and Paper Technology

Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences & Natural Resources

Gorgan

Iran

Marco Valente

Department of Chemical and Material Engineering

University of Rome La Sapienza

Rome

Italy

Richard Venditti

Department of Forest Biomaterials

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC

USA

Preface

Over the past few decades the ratio of production to new discoveries has gradually fallen and is currently estimated to about three to one. For every discovered barrel of oil, we consume three. At the same time, more and more regions of the world are seeking high-quality lifestyles that are resource intensive. Until relatively recently (about 30 years ago), high consumption of energy was reserved for the developed economies of the “West.” Since then, rapid development of other countries such as China, India, and Brazil has resulted in a huge increase in demand for energy sources worldwide. The entire population of OECD countries is estimated as about 1.25 billion people, and their primary energy use as 4.37 toe per capita. When China, India, and Brazil, altogether about 2.75 billion people, approach even conservative “European” levels of fossil resources usage (3.29 toe per capita), an additional supply exceeding current use of all OECD countries will be required. It is difficult to envisage how this demand could be met with nonrenewable resources in the medium to long term. It is therefore evident that resources at our disposal are shrinking fast. Moreover, most of these petroleum polymers are not biodegradable and, thus, cannot be decomposed naturally. Furthermore, the addition of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere at the end of its life cycle has increased the need to use materials from renewable and CO₂-neutral resources. There is more carbohydrate on earth than all other organic materials combined. Carbohydrates are readily biodegradable and tend to degrade in biologically active environments like soil, sewage, and marine locations where bacteria are active. However, the basic construct of biopolymer matrices remains a virtually insurmountable obstacle to the “best laid plans of mice and men” of providing products to compete with petro-based chemicals and associated commodity items. A more robust and precise understanding of the factors that limit the widespread use of lignocellulosic substrates in society is perhaps the most pressing challenge that the emergent bio-economy faces. The goal, therefore, of this book is to elucidate the fundamental physicochemistry and characterization of the biomaterials, emphasize their value proposition for supplanting petrochemicals, tackle the challenges of conversion, and ultimately provide a milieu of possibilities for the biomaterials. The reader will be conversant and knowledgeable of the critical issues that surround the field of lignocellulosic intransigence, possible successful strategies to cope with their inertness, and potential pathways for the successful use of lignocellulosics and starch in the new bio-economy.

Turning the bio-economy into reality is more than a technical issue. From an abstract point of view, it needs scientific and technical push as well as market pull to make the bio-innovation leap. Therefore, the future role of biomass and its life cycle analysis as industrial feedstock to provide fuel and chemicals is discussed in this book with an analysis of the fossil economy, especially the chemical sector. But first and foremost it needs visionary people: devoted scientists, future-oriented entrepreneurs, a supportive political framework and last but not least a willing general public.

Ali S. Ayoub
July 2017
Chicago, USA

Introduction to Renewable Biomaterials

First Principles and Concepts

List of Contributors

Preface