Table of Contents

Cover

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Title Page

Copyright
Dedication

List of Figures

List of Tables

Foreword

Series Preface

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part I: Introducing Fixed-Wing UAVs

Chapter 1: Preliminaries
1. 1.1 Externally Sourced Components
2. 1.2 Manufacturing Methods
3. 1.3 Project DECODE
4. 1.4 The Stages of Design
5. 1.5 Summary
Chapter 2: Unmanned Air Vehicles
1. 2.1 A Brief Taxonomy of UAVs
2. 2.2 The Morphology of a UAV
3. 2.3 Main Design Drivers

Part II: The Aircraft in More Detail

Chapter 3: Wings
1. 3.1 Simple Wing Theory and Aerodynamic Shape
2. 3.2 Spars
3. 3.3 Covers
4. 3.4 Ribs
5. 3.5 Fuselage Attachments
6. 3.6 Ailerons/Roll Control
7. 3.7 Flaps
8. 3.8 Wing Tips
9. 3.9 Wing-housed Retractable Undercarriage
10. 3.10 Integral Fuel Tanks
Chapter 4: Fuselages and Tails (Empennage)
1. 4.1 Main Fuselage/Nacelle Structure
2. 4.2 Wing Attachment
3. 4.3 Engine and Motor Mountings
4. 4.4 Avionics Trays
5. 4.5 Payloads – Camera Mountings
6. 4.6 Integral Fuel Tanks
7. 4.7 Assembly Mechanisms and Access Hatches
8. 4.8 Undercarriage Attachment
9. 4.9 Tails (Empennage)
Chapter 5: Propulsion
1. 5.1 Liquid-Fueled IC Engines
2. 5.2 Rare-earth Brushless Electric Motors
3. 5.3 Propellers
4. 5.4 Engine/Motor Control
5. 5.5 Fuel Systems
6. 5.6 Batteries and Generators
Chapter 6: Airframe Avionics and Systems
1. 6.1 Primary Control Transmitter and Receivers
2. 6.2 Avionics Power Supplies
3. 6.3 Servos
4. 6.4 Wiring, Buses, and Boards
5. 6.5 Autopilots
6. 6.6 Payload Communications Systems
7. 6.7 Ancillaries
8. 6.8 Resilience and Redundancy
Chapter 7: Undercarriages
1. 7.1 Wheels
2. 7.2 Suspension
3. 7.3 Steering
4. 7.4 Retractable Systems

Part III: Designing UAVs

Chapter 8: The Process of Design
1. 8.1 Goals and Constraints
2. 8.2 Airworthiness
3. 8.3 Likely Failure Modes
4. 8.4 Systems Engineering
Chapter 9: Tool Selection
1. 9.1 Geometry/CAD Codes
2. 9.2 Concept Design
3. 9.3 Operational Simulation and Mission Planning
4. 9.4 Aerodynamic and Structural Analysis Codes
5. 9.5 Design and Decision Viewing
6. 9.6 Supporting Databases
Chapter 10: Concept Design: Initial Constraint Analysis
1. 10.1 The Design Brief
2. 10.2 Airframe Topology
3. 10.3 Airframe and Powerplant Scaling via Constraint Analysis
4. 10.4 A Parametric Constraint Analysis Report
5. 10.5 The Combined Constraint Diagram and Its Place in the Design Process
Chapter 11: Spreadsheet-Based Concept Design and Examples
1. 11.1 Concept Design Algorithm
2. 11.2 Range
3. 11.3 Structural Loading Calculations
4. 11.4 Weight and CoG Estimation
5. 11.5 Longitudinal Stability
6. 11.6 Powering and Propeller Sizing
7. 11.7 Resulting Design: Decode-1
8. 11.8 A Bigger Single Engine Design: Decode-2
9. 11.9 A Twin Tractor Design: SPOTTER
Chapter 12: Preliminary Geometry Design
1. 12.1 Preliminary Airframe Geometry and CAD
2. 12.2 Designing Decode-1 with AirCONICS
Chapter 13: Preliminary Aerodynamic and Stability Analysis
1. 13.1 Panel Method Solvers – XFoil and XFLR5
2. 13.2 RANS Solvers – Fluent
3. 13.3 Example Two-dimensional Airfoil Analysis
4. 13.4 Example Three-dimensional Airfoil Analysis
5. 13.5 3D Models of Simple Wings
6. 13.6 Example Airframe Aerodynamics
Chapter 14: Preliminary Structural Analysis
1. 14.1 Structural Modeling Using AirCONICS
2. 14.2 Structural Analysis Using Simple Beam Theory
3. 14.3 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
4. 14.4 Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity
5. 14.5 Summary of Preliminary Structural Analysis
Chapter 15: Weight and Center of Gravity Control
1. 15.1 Weight Control
2. 15.2 Longitudinal Center of Gravity Control
Chapter 16: Experimental Testing and Validation
1. 16.1 Wind Tunnels Tests
2. 16.2 Airframe Load Tests
3. 16.3 Avionics Testing
Chapter 17: Detail Design: Constructing Explicit Design Geometry
1. 17.1 The Generation of Geometry
2. 17.2 Fuselage
3. 17.3 An Example UAV Assembly
4. 17.4 3D Printed Parts
5. 17.5 Wings

Part IV: Manufacture and Flight

Chapter 18: Manufacture
1. 18.1 Externally Sourced Components
2. 18.2 Three-Dimensional Printing
3. 18.3 Hot-wire Foam Cutting
4. 18.4 Laser Cutting
5. 18.5 Wiring Looms
6. 18.6 Assembly Mechanisms
7. 18.7 Storage and Transport Cases
Chapter 19: Regulatory Approval and Documentation
1. 19.1 Aviation Authority Requirements
2. 19.2 System Description
3. 19.3 Operations Manual
4. 19.4 Safety Case
5. 19.5 Flight Planning Manual
Chapter 20: Test Flights and Maintenance
1. 20.1 Test Flight Planning
2. 20.2 Test Flight Examples
3. 20.3 Maintenance
Chapter 21: Lessons Learned
1. 21.1 Things that Have Gone Wrong and Why

Part V: Appendices, Bibliography, and Index

Appendix A: Generic Aircraft Design Flowchart

Appendix B: Example AirCONICS Code for Decode-1

Appendix C: Worked (Manned Aircraft) Detail Design Example

C.1 Stage 1: Concept Sketches
C.2 Stage 2: Part Definition
C.3 Stage 3: “Flying Surfaces”
C.4 Stage 4: Other Items
C.5 Stage 5: Detail Definition

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1: Preliminaries

Figure 1.1 The University of Southampton UAV team with eight of our aircraft, March 2015.
Figure 1.2 The design spiral.

Chapter 2: Unmanned Air Vehicles

Figure 2.1 The Southampton University SPOTTER aircraft at the 2016 Farnborough International Airshow.
Figure 2.2 University of Southampton SPOTTER UAV with under-slung payload pod.
Figure 2.3 Integral fuel tank with trailing edge flap and main spars.
Figure 2.4 A typical carbon spar and foam wing with SLS nylon ribs at key locations (note the separate aileron and flap with associated servo linkages).
Figure 2.5 A typical SLS structural component.
Figure 2.6 A typical integral fuel tank.
Figure 2.7 Typical telemetry data recorded by an autopilot.
Figure 2.8 Flight tracks of the SPOTTER aircraft while carrying out automated takeoff and landing tests. A total of 23 fully automated flights totaling 55 km of flying is shown.
Figure 2.9 A typical UAV wiring diagram.
Figure 2.10 The SkyCircuits SC2 autopilot (removed from its case).
Figure 2.11 University of Southampton SPOTTER UAV with under-slung maritime flight releasable AUV.

Chapter 3: Wings

Figure 3.1 Variation of airfoil section drag at zero lift with section Reynolds number and thickness-to-chord ratio.
Figure 3.2 A UAV with significant FDM ABS winglets (this aircraft also has Custer ducted fans).
Figure 3.3 Wing foam core prior to covering or rib insertion – note strengthened section in way of main wing spar.
Figure 3.4 Covered wing with spar and rib – in this case, the rib just acts to transfer the wing twisting moment while the spar is bonded directly to the foam without additional strengthening.
Figure 3.5 A SPOTTER UAV wing spar under static sandbag test.
Figure 3.6 SLS nylon wing rib with spar hole – note the extended load transfer elements that are bonded to the main foam parts of the wing and also flap hinge point.
Figure 3.7 Two wing foam cores with end rib and spar inserted – note in this case the rib does not extend to the rear of the section, as a separate wing morphing mechanism will be fitted to the rear of the wing.
Figure 3.8 SPOTTER UAV wing under construction showing the two-part aileron plus flap, all hinged off a common rear wing spar – note also the nylon torque peg on the rib nearest the camera.
Figure 3.9 UAV that uses wing warping for roll control.
Figure 3.10 UAV that uses tiperons for roll control.
Figure 3.11 Fowler flap – note the complex mechanism required to deploy the flap.
Figure 3.12 Simple FDM-printed wing tip incorporated into the outermost wing rib.
Figure 3.13 UAV with pneumatically retractable undercarriage – the main wheels retract into the wings while the nose wheel tucks up under the fuselage (wing cut-out shown prior to undercarriage installation).
Figure 3.14 Integral fuel tank in central wing section for SPOTTER UAV.

Chapter 4: Fuselages and Tails (Empennage)

Figure 4.1 SPOTTER SLS nylon engine nacelle/fuselage and interior structure.
Figure 4.2 Bayonet system for access to internal avionics (a) and fuselage-mounted switch and voltage indicators (b).
Figure 4.3 Load spreader plate on Mylar-clad foam core aileron.
Figure 4.4 Commercially produced model aircraft with foam fuselage (and wings).
Figure 4.5 Space frame structure made of CFRP tubes with SLS nylon joints and foam cladding.
Figure 4.6 DECODE aircraft with modular fuselage elements.
Figure 4.7 Wing attachment on SPOTTER fuselage. Note the recess for square torque peg with locking pin between main and rear spar holes.
Figure 4.8 Typical engine and motor mounts for SLS nylon fuselages and nacelles. Note the steel engine bearer in first view, engine hours meter in second image, and vibration isolation in third setup.
Figure 4.9 Frustratingly small fuselage access hatch.
Figure 4.10 Typical plywood avionics boards with equipment mounted. Note dual layer system with antivibration mounts in last image.
Figure 4.11 SULSA forward-looking video camera.
Figure 4.12 SPOTTER payload pods with fixed aperture for video camera (a) and downward and sideways cameras (b and c).
Figure 4.13 Simple two axis gimbal system and Hero2 video camera mounted in front of nose wheel.
Figure 4.14 Three-axis gimbal system and Sony video camera mounted in front of the nose wheel. Note the video receiver system on the bench that links to the camera via a dedicated radio channel.
Figure 4.15 SPOTTER integral fuel tank. Note internal baffle and very small breather port (top left) in the close-up view of the filler neck.
Figure 4.16 Aircraft with SLS nylon fuselage formed in three parts: front camera section attached by bayonet to rear two sections joined by tension rods. Note the steel tension rod inside the hull just behind bayonet in the right-hand image.
Figure 4.17 Example hatches in SLS nylon fuselages. Note the locking pins and location tabs on the right-hand hatch.
Figure 4.18 Metal-reinforced nose wheel attachment with steering and retract hinge in aluminum frame attached to SLS nylon fuselage. Note the nose wheel leg sized to protect the antenna.
Figure 4.19 Nylon nose wheel attachment. Note the significant reinforcement around the lower and upper strut bearings.
Figure 4.20 Tails attached directly to the fuselage. The right-hand aircraft is a heavily modified commercial kit used for piggy-back launches of gliders.
Figure 4.21 Tails attached using CFRP booms, both circular and square in cross-section.
Figure 4.22 All-moving horizontal stabilizer with port/starboard split to augment roll control and provide redundancy.
Figure 4.23 SLS nylon part to attach tail surfaces to a CFRP tail boom.

Chapter 5: Propulsion

Figure 5.1 UAV engine/electric motor/propeller test cell. Note the starter generator on the engine behind the four-bladed propeller.
Figure 5.2 UAV engine dynamometer.
Figure 5.3 Typical maximum powers, weights, and estimated peak static thrusts of engines for UAVs in the 2–150 kg MTOW range.
Figure 5.4 OS Gemini FT-160 glow-plug engine in pusher configuration. Note the permanent wiring for glow-plugs.
Figure 5.5 OS 30 cc GF30 four-stroke engine installed in a hybrid powered UAV. Note the significant size of the exhaust system.
Figure 5.6 Saito 57 cc twin four-stroke engine in pusher configuration. Note the pancake starter generator fitted to this engine.
Figure 5.7 Twin 3W-28i CS single-cylinder two-stroke engines fitted to 2Seas UAV. Note again the significant size of the exhaust systems.
Figure 5.8 Twin OS 40 cc GF40 four-stroke engines installed in SPOTTER UAV, with and without engine cowlings.
Figure 5.9 Raw performance data taken from an engine under test in our dynamometer.
Figure 5.10 Hacker brushless electric motor.
Figure 5.11 Outputs from JavaProp “multi analysis” for a propeller operating at fixed torque. Note the differing horizontal scales.
Figure 5.12 Large UAV fuel tanks. Note clunks and fuel level sensor fitting at rear left-hand corner of one tank.
Figure 5.13 SPOTTER fuel tank level sensors. One sensor lies behind the central flap in the upper wider part of the tank (just visible in the right-hand image), while the second one lies at the bottom just above the payload interface.
Figure 5.14 Engine-powered brushless generators driven directly or by toothed belt.

Chapter 6: Airframe Avionics and Systems

Figure 6.1 Outline avionics diagram for SPOTTER UAV.
Figure 6.2 Outline avionics diagram for SPOTTER UAV (detail) – note switch-over unit linking dual receivers and dual autopilots.
Figure 6.3 Typical avionics boards. Note the use of MilSpec connectors (the Futaba receivers are marked 1, the switch-over unit 2, the SC2 autopilot and GPS antenna 3, and the avionics and ignition batteries 4 and 5, respectively).
Figure 6.4 Fuselage with externally visible LED voltage monitor strips. Here, one is for the avionics system and the second for the ignition system.
Figure 6.5 Aircraft with twin on-board, belt-driven generators as supplied by the UAV Factory and a close-up of UAV Factory system.
Figure 6.6 On-board, belt-driven brushless motor used as generators.
Figure 6.7 Aircraft with a Sullivan pancake starter–generator system.
Figure 6.8 A selection of aircraft servos from three different manufacturers.
Figure 6.9 Variation of servo torque with weight for various manuafcturers' servos.
Figure 6.10 SPOTTER aircraft showing multiple redundant ailerons and elevators.
Figure 6.11 Servo cut-out in wing with SLS nylon reinforcement box.
Figure 6.12 Typical servo linkage. Note the servo arm, linkage, and servo horn (with reinforcing pad).
Figure 6.13 SPOTTER “iron bird” test harness layout. Note the full-size airframe drawing placed under the wiring.
Figure 6.14 Generator and drive motor for “iron bird” testing.
Figure 6.15 SPOTTER “iron bird” with resulting professionally built harness in place.
Figure 6.16 Decode-1 “iron bird” with harness that uses simple aero-modeler-based cable connections.
Figure 6.17 Baseboard with mil spec connections on left- and right-hand edges. Note SkyCircuits SC2 autopilot fitted top right with GPS antenna on top and switch-over unit in the center with very many wiring connections.
Figure 6.18 Laser-cut plywood baseboards.
Figure 6.19 Components located directly into 3D SLS nylon printed structure. The servo is screwed to a clip-in SLS part, while the motor is bolted directly to the fuselage.
Figure 6.20 Basic Arduino Uno autopilot components including GPS module on extension board, and accelerometer, barometer and three-axis gyro on daughter boards.
Figure 6.21 Pixhawk autopilot.
Figure 6.22 The SkyCircuits SC2 autopilot (removed from its case (a), and with attached aerials and servo connection daughter board (b). See also Figure 6.3, where the SC2 is fitted with its case and a GPS aerial on top).
Figure 6.23 A selection of professional-grade 5.8 GHz video radiolink equipment: (front) transmitter with omnidirectional antenna in ruggedized case, and (rear left to right) receiver, directional antenna, and combined receiver/high intensity screen unit.
Figure 6.24 A hobby-grade 5.8 GHz video radiolink: (a) receiver with omni-directional antenna and (b) transmitter with similar unclad antenna and attached mini-camera.
Figure 6.25 Futaba s-bus telemetry modules:(clockwise from left) temperature sensor, rpm sensor, and GPS receiver.

Chapter 7: Undercarriages

Figure 7.1 Some typical small UAV undercarriages.
Figure 7.2 An aircraft with spats fitted to its main wheels to reduce drag.
Figure 7.3 Nose wheel and strut showing suspension elements, main bearings, control servo, and caster.
Figure 7.4 Tail wheel showing suspension spring.
Figure 7.5 Nose wheel mechanism with combined spring-coupled steering and vertical suspension spring.
Figure 7.6 UAV with a pneumatic, fully retractable undercarriage system.
Figure 7.7 Details of fully retractable undercarriage system.

Chapter 8: The Process of Design

Figure 8.1 Explosion of information content as design progresses.
Figure 8.2 2SEAS aircraft with redundant ailerons and elevators.
Figure 8.3 Autopilot system on vibration test.
Figure 8.4 Treble isolated engine mounting.
Figure 8.5 Typical military UAV work-breakdown structure interface definitions, from MIL-HDBK-881C for UAVs.
Figure 8.6 Example military system requirements flowdown [13].
Figure 8.7 Systems engineering “V” model.
Figure 8.8 Weight prediction of SPOTTER UAV.
Figure 8.9 Pie chart plots of SPOTTER weight.
Figure 8.10 Example weight and cost breakdown.

Chapter 9: Tool Selection

Figure 9.1 Outline design workflow.
Figure 9.2 Analysis tool logic.
Figure 9.3 Mission analysis using the AnyLogic event-driven simulation environment.

Chapter 10: Concept Design: Initial Constraint Analysis

Figure 10.1 On May 14, 1954, Boeing officially rolled out the Dash-80, the prototype of the company's 707 jet transport.
Figure 10.2 Four semi-randomly chosen points in an immense space of unmanned aircraft topologies: (starting at the top) the Scaled Composites Proteus, the NASA Prandtl-D research aircraft, the AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven, and the NASA Helios (images courtesy of NASA and the USAF).
Figure 10.3 Minimum mass cantilever designed to carry a point load.
Figure 10.4 NASA oblique-wing research aircraft (images courtesy of NASA). Could your design benefit from asymmetry?
Figure 10.5 Multifunctionality: the 3D-printed fuel tank (highlighted) of the SPOTTER unmanned aircraft does not only hold the fuel (with integral baffles) but also generates lift and it has a structural role too, see also Figures 2.3, 2.6, and 3.14
Figure 10.6 Typical constraint diagram. Each constraint “bites” a chunk out of the $c010-math-058$ versus $c010-math-059$ space; whatever is left is the feasible region, wherein the design will have to be positioned.

Chapter 11: Spreadsheet-Based Concept Design and Examples

Figure 11.1 Decode-1 in the R.J. Mitchell wind tunnel with wheels and wing tips removed and electric motor for propeller drive.
Figure 11.2 Decode-1 in flight with nose camera fitted.
Figure 11.3 Decode-1 spreadsheet snapshot – inputs page.
Figure 11.5 Decode-1 spreadsheet snapshot – geometry page.
Figure 11.6 Decode-1 outer geometry as generated with the AirCONICS tool suite.
Figure 11.7 Decode-2 spreadsheet snapshot.
Figure 11.8 Decode-2 in flight with nose camera fitted.
Figure 11.9 Decode-2 outer geometry as generated with the AirCONICS tool suite.
Figure 11.10 SPOTTER spreadsheet snapshot.
Figure 11.11 SPOTTER in flight with payload pod fitted.
Figure 11.12 SPOTTER outer geometry as generated with the AirCONICS tool suite.

Chapter 12: Preliminary Geometry Design

Figure 12.1 Basic AirCONICS airframe geometry for a single tractor engine, twin-boom, H-tail design.
Figure 12.2 AirCONICS model of complete Decode-1 airframe with control surfaces, undercarriage, and propeller disk.

Chapter 13: Preliminary Aerodynamic and Stability Analysis

Figure 13.1 $c013-math-007$ and streamline plot for the NACA0012 foil at $c013-math-008$ angle of attack as computed with XFoil.
Figure 13.2 Results of XFoil analysis sweep for the NACA 64–201 foil at Mach 0.17 as computed with XFLR5.
Figure 13.3 Results of XFLR5 analysis sweep for a wing generated from the NACA 64–201 foil sections at Reynold's number of 4.4 million and Mach 0.17.
Figure 13.4 Convergence plot of two-dimensional k-ω SST RANS-based CFD analysis.
Figure 13.5 Pathlines and surface static pressure plot from Fluent RANS based CFD solution.
Figure 13.6 Section through a coarse-grained 3D Harpoon mesh for typical Spalart–Allmaras UAV wing model and close-up showing a boundary layer mesh.
Figure 13.7 Histogram of $c013-math-069$ parameter for typical boundary layer mesh using the Spalart–Allmaras one-parameter turbulence model.
Figure 13.8 Histogram of $c013-math-070$ parameter for typical boundary layer mesh using the $c013-math-071$ SST turbulence model.
Figure 13.9 Lift versus drag polar for NAC0012 airfoil from XFoil and experiments.
Figure 13.10 Low-resolution NASA Langley 2D mesh around the NACA0012 foil.
Figure 13.11 Middle-resolution NASA Langley 2D mesh around the NACA0012 foil.
Figure 13.12 ICEM 2D mesh around the NACA0012 foil (courtesy of Dr D.J.J. Toal).
Figure 13.13 Experimental and 2D computational lift and drag data for the NACA0012 airfoil (using the $c013-math-077$ SST turbulence model).
Figure 13.14 Computed two-dimensional flow past the NACA0012 foil when almost fully stalled.
Figure 13.15 Section through a fine-grained Harpoon 3D mesh around the NACA0012 foil suitable for the $c013-math-084$ SST turbulence model. Note the wake mesh extending from the trailing edge.
Figure 13.16 Experimental and 3D computational lift and drag data for the NACA0012 airfoil (using the Spalart–Allmaras and $c013-math-086$ SST turbulence models).
Figure 13.17 Experimental [20 22] and computational lift and drag data for the NACA 64–210 section. Source: Adapted from Abbott 1959.
Figure 13.18 Pathlines from a RANS $c013-math-091$ solution for the NACA 64–210 airfoil at $c013-math-092$ angle of attack. Note the reversed flow and large separation bubble on the upper surface.
Figure 13.19 Experimental and computational lift and drag data for the Sivells and Spooner [21] wing and $c013-math-104$ for the $c013-math-105$ SST Harpoon mesh.
Figure 13.20 XFLR5 model of the Sivells and Spooner wing.
Figure 13.21 Experimental and computational lift and drag data for the Sivells and Spooner [21] wing with enhanced $c013-math-111$ SST Harpoon mesh of 76 million cells and $c013-math-112$ for the enhanced mesh.
Figure 13.22 Pathlines and static pressure around the Sivells and Spooner [21] wing with enhanced $c013-math-113$ SST Harpoon mesh at $c013-math-114$ angle of attack.
Figure 13.23 XFLR5 model of Decode-1 airframe as generated by AirCONICS with main wing setting angle of $c013-math-116$ and elevator setting angle of $c013-math-117$ , at an angle of attack of $c013-math-118$ and 30 m/s. Note the use of cambered sections for the main wing and symmetrical profiles for the elevator and fins. The green bars indicate the section lift, with the tail producing downforce to ensure pitch stability.
Figure 13.24 XFLR5-generated polar plot for Decode-1 airframe as generated by AirCONICS with main wing setting angle of $c013-math-119$ and elevator setting angle of $c013-math-120$ , showing speed variations from 15 to 30 m/s. The black circles indicate flight at an angle of attack of $c013-math-121$ at which Cm is zero.
Figure 13.25 XFLR5-generated polar plot for Decode-1 airframe as generated by AirCONICS with main wing setting angle of $c013-math-128$ and elevator setting angle of $c013-math-129$ , showing speed variations from 15 to 30 m/s. Note that Cl is 0.28 and Cm is zero at an angle of attack of $c013-math-130$ as required in the cruise condition.
Figure 13.26 XFLR5-generated polar plot for Decode-1 airframe at 30 m/s with main wing setting angle of $c013-math-134$ , showing variations in center of gravity position by 100 mm, reduction in tail length by 300 mm, and elevator set at an angle of $c013-math-135$ .
Figure 13.27 Time-domain simulation for XFLR5-generated eigenvalues at 30 m/s taken from Table 13.2 showing $c013-math-207$ for the roll mode and $c013-math-208$ for the spiral mode.
Figure 13.28 University of Southampton flight simulator.
Figure 13.29 Decode-1 mesh shown inside Harpoon along with wake surfaces and refinement zones.
Figure 13.30 Fluent mesh on the center plane for the Decode-1 airframe $c013-math-214$ SST analysis at 30 m/s, together with resulting $c013-math-215$ histogram.
Figure 13.31 Fluent convergence plot for Decode-1 whole aircraft model at 30 m/s.
Figure 13.32 Polar plot for Decode-1 airframe at 30 m/s showing both Fluent and XLFR5 results for lift and drag. Those for Fluent include results for just the lifting surfaces and with the complete airframe fuselage, control surfaces, and undercarriage gear; those for XFLR5 show also the impact of adding a fixed parasitic drag coefficient of 0.0375.
Figure 13.33 AirCONICS model of Decode-1 lifting surfaces.
Figure 13.34 AirCONICS model of complete Decode-1 airframe with control surfaces, undercarriage, and propeller disk.
Figure 13.35 Streamlines colored by velocity magnitude around the complete Decode-1 airframe with deflected ailerons.

Chapter 14: Preliminary Structural Analysis

Figure 14.1 Typical composite Vn diagram for gust and maneuver loads on a small UAV (here for Decode-1 assuming maneuver load factors of +5 and $c014-math-001$ 2, 9.1 m/s gust velocity, and a dive speed of 160% of the cruise speed).
Figure 14.2 Breakdown of Decode-1 outer mold line model into individual components for structural modeling.
Figure 14.3 Decode-1 components that will be produced by 3D printing or made from laser-cut ply.
Figure 14.4 Deflection and slope variations for the Decode-1 main spar when flying at 30 m/s and an angle of attack of $c014-math-083$ using loading taken from XFLR5, a load factor of $c014-math-084$ , and simple beam theory analysis. The spar is assumed to be made from a circular CFRP section of outer diameter 20 mm, wall thickness 2 mm, Young's modulus of 70 GPa, and extending the full span of the aircraft, being clamped on the center plane.
Figure 14.5 Preliminary spar layout for Decode-1. Here the linking parts are taken directly from AirCONICS without being reduced to either thick-walled or thin-walled rib-reinforced structures.
Figure 14.6 Simplified Abaqus® main spar model with solid SLS nylon supports for Decode-1, showing subdivided spar and boundary conditions for a $c014-math-085$ maneuver loading.
Figure 14.7 Deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for Decode-1 main spar under $c014-math-086$ flight loads using a uniform spar load. The tip deflection is 189.7 mm.
Figure 14.8 Abaqus loading for full Decode-1 spar model under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-092$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity.
Figure 14.9 Deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for full Decode-1 spar model under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-093$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity. The main spar tip deflections are 143.9 mm, the elevator spar tip deflections are 10.8 mm, and the fin spar tip deflections are 11.1 mm.
Figure 14.10 Further details of the deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for full Decode-1 spar model under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-094$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity.
Figure 14.11 Deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for nylon support part in full Decode-1 spar model under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-095$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity.
Figure 14.12 Deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for full Decode-1 spar model with locally refined mesh under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-100$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity.
Figure 14.13 Deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for full Decode-1 spar model with fully refined mesh and reduced boundary conditions under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-102$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity.
Figure 14.14 Simplified Abaqus thick-walled structural model for Decode-1 SLS nylon part. The mesh for this part contains 25 000 elements.
Figure 14.15 Deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for thick-walled nylon part in full Decode-1 spar model with fully refined mesh and reduced boundary conditions under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-104$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity.
Figure 14.16 Deformed shape and von Mises stress plot for 2 mm thick-walled nylon part in full Decode-1 spar model with fully refined mesh and reduced boundary conditions under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5 together with a load factor of $c014-math-105$ plus elevator and fin loading based on Cl values of unity.
Figure 14.17 Abaqus model of foam core created with CAD shell and fillet commands and meshed with brick hex elements.
Figure 14.18 Abaqus model of glass-fiber wing cover created with CAD shell commands and meshed with continuum shell hex elements. Note the wedge elements used for the sharp trailing edge.
Figure 14.19 Abaqus assembly with foam parts added, highlighting the tie constraint between the foam and the SLS nylon support.
Figure 14.20 Pressure map on Decode-1 foam part under wing flight loads taken from XFLR5.
Figure 14.21 Resulting deflections and stresses in foam core and cover for wing under flight conditions.
Figure 14.22 Resulting deflections and stresses in SLS nylon part with foam mounting lug for wing under flight conditions.
Figure 14.23 Two-degrees-of-freedom model of wing aeroelasticity.
Figure 14.24 Truncated Abaqus contour plot of a first twist mode revealing the nodal line and hence the elastic axis.
Figure 14.25 Abaqus plots of first flap and twist modes for Decode-1 wing.

Chapter 15: Weight and Center of Gravity Control

Figure 15.1 Channel wing aircraft being weighed after final assembly.

Chapter 16: Experimental Testing and Validation

Figure 16.1 Decode-1 and channel wings on wind tunnel mounting rig. Note the circular boundary plate that stands in for the absent fuselage.
Figure 16.2 AirCONICS model of Decode-1 airframe in a representation of the R.J. Mitchell 11' $c016-math-004$ 8' wind tunnel working section at Southampton University, illustrating degree of blockage.
Figure 16.3 AirCONICS half-model of Decode-1 airframe in the R.J. Mitchell 11' $c016-math-011$ 8' wind tunnel prior to mesh preparation.
Figure 16.4 Section through Fluent velocity magnitude results and Harpoon mesh for Decode-1 airframe in the R.J. Mitchell 11' $c016-math-012$ 8' wind tunnel.
Figure 16.5 Decode-1 baseline wind tunnel results (control surfaces in neutral positions) under varying wind speed. (a) Lift coefficient. (b) Drag coefficient. (c) Side coefficient. (d) Pitch coefficient. (e) Roll coefficient. (f) Yaw coefficient.
Figure 16.6 Decode-1 elevator effectiveness with varying deflection angles and wind speed. (a) Lift coefficient at 15 m/s. (b) Drag coefficient at 15 m/s. (c) Pitch coefficient at 10 m/s. (d) Pitch coefficient at 15 m/s. (e) Pitch coefficient at 24 m/s.
Figure 16.7 Decode-1 rudder effectiveness with varying deflection angle. (a) Lift coefficient at 24 m/s. (b) Drag coefficient at 24 m/s. (c) Side coefficient at 24 m/s. (d) Pitch coefficient at 24 m/s. (e) Roll coefficient at 24 m/s. (f) Yaw coefficient at 24 m/s.
Figure 16.8 Dial gauge in use to measure aiframe deflection during static test in the lab.
Figure 16.9 Lab-quality force transducer, piezoelectric accelerometers, and electromagnetic shakers.
Figure 16.10 Flight-capable piezoelectric accelerometer and data-capture system.
Figure 16.11 Mounting system for wing and main spar assembly under sandbag load test.
Figure 16.12 Clamping system for main spar.
Figure 16.13 Wing assembly under sandbag load test.
Figure 16.14 Partial failure of SLS nylon structural component during sandbag load test. Note the significant cracks and large deformations.
Figure 16.15 Load testing of an undercarriage leg and associated SLS nylon mounting structure. Note the dummy carbon-fiber tubes present to allow the SLS structure to be correctly set up.
Figure 16.16 Ground vibration test of a Decode-1 wing showing support and mounting arrangements.
Figure 16.17 Ground vibration test of a Decode-1 wing ((a) accelerometer on starboard wing tip: (b) shaker and force transducer near wing root).
Figure 16.18 Frequency response from ground vibration test of a Decode-1 wing: accelerometer on port wing tip and cursors on first flap mode.
Figure 16.19 Frequency response from ground vibration test of a Decode-1 wing: flapping mode accelerometer placement (upper) and twisting mode placement (lower), cursors on first twist mode.
Figure 16.20 SPOTTER iron-bird being used to test a complete avionics build-up: note motors to spin generators in a realistic manner.
Figure 16.21 Avionics board under vibration test. Note the free-free mounting simulated by elastic band supports. In this case, a force transducer has been placed between the shaker and the long connecting rod that stimulates the board. The in-built accelerometer in the flight controller is used to register motions.
Figure 16.22 Typical Servo test equipment: (front left to right) simple low-cost tester, large servo, motor speed tester with in-built power meter, and servo control output; (rear) avionics battery and standard primary receiver.

Chapter 17: Detail Design: Constructing Explicit Design Geometry

Figure 17.1 Detail design process flow.
Figure 17.2 The structure of well-partitioned concept design models.
Figure 17.3 Example configuration studies.
Figure 17.4 Example 3D models of Rotax aircraft engine and RCV UAV engine.
Figure 17.5 Example of images used to create realistic looking 3D Solidworks geometry model.
Figure 17.6 2D side elevations of Rotax aircraft engine and RCV UAV engine.
Figure 17.7 Scaling dimension added to drawing (mm).
Figure 17.8 “Spaceframe” aircraft structure.
Figure 17.9 Illustrative student UAV assembly.
Figure 17.10 UAV assembly model can be modified by changing design table parameters.
Figure 17.11 Plan and side view hand sketches.
Figure 17.12 Hand sketch scaled and positioned orthogonally in Solidworks.
Figure 17.13 Exact, dimensioned sketch being created on hand-sketch outline.
Figure 17.14 The “master” driving sketches in the assembly.
Figure 17.15 Design table for example UAV.
Figure 17.16 Input reference geometry.
Figure 17.17 The input geometry modeled as partitioned parts.
Figure 17.18 The assembly generated from reference geometry.
Figure 17.19 “Debugging” the detailed model.
Figure 17.20 Trimming of boom tube fairing.
Figure 17.21 Final detailed model.
Figure 17.22 Multipanel wing of PA-28. Photo courtesy Bob Adams https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ – no copyright is asserted by the inclusion of this image.
Figure 17.23 NACA four-digit section coordinate spreadsheet.
Figure 17.24 Curve importing in Solidworks.
Figure 17.25 Use of “convert entities” in Solidworks.
Figure 17.26 Closing the 2D aerofoil shape.
Figure 17.27 Deleting sketch relationship with reference geometry.
Figure 17.28 Reference geometry.
Figure 17.29 Constraining curve to reference “scaffold” geometry.
Figure 17.30 “3D” scaffold to define the relative positions in space of two independently scalable wing sections.
Figure 17.31 Wing surface with span, twist, taper, and sweep variables.
Figure 17.32 Multipanel wing.
Figure 17.33 Example of a double-curvature composite wing.
Figure 17.34 Fabricated wing structures.
Figure 17.35 Simple wooden rib and alloy spar structure.
Figure 17.36 Parametric wing structure.

Chapter 18: Manufacture

Figure 18.1 3D SLS nylon parts as supplied from the manufacturer.
Figure 18.2 3D SLS stainless steel gasoline engine bearer after printing and in situ.
Figure 18.3 3D SLS nylon manufacturing and depowdering.
Figure 18.4 Small office-based FDM printer. Parts as they appear on the platten and after removal of support material.
Figure 18.5 FDM-printed ABS fuselage parts.
Figure 18.6 Aircraft with FDM-printed fuselage and wing tips.
Figure 18.7 In-house manufactured hot-wire foam cutting machine. This cuts blocks of foam up to 1400 mm $c018-math-032$ 590 mm $c018-math-033$ 320 mm.
Figure 18.8 Large hot-wire foam cutting machine.
Figure 18.9 Hot-wire-cut foam wing parts: (Left) The original material blocks with and without cores removed; (right) with FDM-manufactured ABS joining parts.
Figure 18.10 Foam wings after cladding: glass fiber, Mylar, and filled glass fiber.
Figure 18.11 Aircraft with wings fabricated from laser-cut plywood covered with aero-modeler film.
Figure 18.12 Avionics base board and servo horn reinforcement made from laser cut plywood.
Figure 18.13 Foam reinforcement ribs made from laser-cut plywood.
Figure 18.14 Logical wiring diagram (detail).
Figure 18.15 Iron bird for building wiring looms.
Figure 18.16 Soldering station (note the clamps, heat-resistant mat, and good illumination).
Figure 18.17 Female and male bayonet produced in SLS nylon with quick-release locking pin.
Figure 18.18 Quick-release pin fitting used to retain a wing to a fuselage (note lug on wing rib).
Figure 18.19 SLS nylon clamping mechanisms.
Figure 18.20 Cap-screws and embedded retained nuts, here on an undercarriage fixing point.
Figure 18.21 Transport and storage cases.

Chapter 19: Regulatory Approval and Documentation

Figure 19.1 Typical take-off performance.
Figure 19.2 Typical wiring schematic.

Chapter 20: Test Flights and Maintenance

Figure 20.1 Typical flight log.
Figure 20.2 Typical pre-flight checklist.
Figure 20.3 Typical flight procedures checklist.

Chapter 21: Lessons Learned

Figure 21.1 Our first student-designed UAV.
Figure 21.2 Not all test flights end successfully!
Figure 21.3 Aircraft with variable length fuselage. (a) Fuselage split open. (b) Spare fuselage section.
Figure 21.4 Student-designed flying boat with large hull volume forward and insufficient vertical tail volume aft.
Figure 21.5 Aircraft with split all-moving elevator. (a) Without dividing fence. (b) With fence.
Figure 21.6 Autopilot on vibration test.
Figure 21.7 Student UAV with undersized wings. The open payload bay also added to stability issues.
Figure 21.8 2SEAS aircraft after failure of main wheel axle.

Appendix A: Generic Aircraft Design Flowchart

Figure A.1 Generic aircraft design flowchart.

Appendix C: Worked (Manned Aircraft) Detail Design Example

Figure C.1 Vans RV7 Aircraft. Cropped image courtesy Daniel Betts https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ – no copyright is asserted by the inclusion of this image.
Figure C.2 Concept sketches of an aircraft.
Figure C.3 Side elevation hand sketch imported and scaled.
Figure C.4 Plan, side, and front view imported and scaled.
Figure C.5 Tracing the outline of the hand sketch to capture the “essential” geometry.
Figure C.6 Dimensioned parametric geometry sketch.
Figure C.7 View of all three of the dimensioned parametric geometry sketches.
Figure C.8 Center fuselage part, with side elevation parametric geometry sketch in the background.
Figure C.9 Underlying geometry for the center fuselage.
Figure C.10 Completion of center fuselage.
Figure C.11 Rear fuselage synchronized with center fuselage at shared interface.
Figure C.12 Fully realized fuselage geometry.
Figure C.13 Two-panel wing and wing incidence and location line in side elevation.
Figure C.14 All the major airframe surface parts added.
Figure C.15 Checking against original sketch.
Figure C.16 Addition of propeller disk and spinner so that ground clearance can be checked.
Figure C.17 Engine installation checking cowling clearance and cooling (note: lightweight decal engine geometry).
Figure C.18 Checking the instrument panel fit (again use of decal for instruments).
Figure C.19 Checking the ergonomics of crew seating and canopy clearance/view.
Figure C.20 Hand sketches–to parameterized sketches–to solid assembly.
Figure C.21 Whole aircraft parametric variables.
Figure C.22 Wing geometry used to calculate lift centers for static margin calculations.
Figure C.23 Final parametric aircraft design with all major masses added.
Figure C.24 Final detailed geometry.

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Preliminaries

Table 1.1 Design system maturity

Chapter 2: Unmanned Air Vehicles

Table 2.1 Different levels of UAV autonomy classified using the Wright–Patterson air force base scheme

Chapter 5: Propulsion

Table 5.1 Typical liquid-fueled IC engine test recording Table (maximum rpms are of course engine-dependent)
Table 5.2 Typical IC engine BMEP values taken from various sources

Chapter 6: Airframe Avionics and Systems

Table 6.1 Typical primary transmitter/receiver channel assignments
Table 6.2 Typical servo properties

Chapter 8: The Process of Design

Table 8.1 Example responsibility allocation matrix for a maintenance team

Chapter 9: Tool Selection

Table 9.1 Concept design requirements

Chapter 11: Spreadsheet-Based Concept Design and Examples

Table 11.1 Typical fixed parameters in concept design.
Table 11.2 Typical limits on variables in concept design.
Table 11.3 Estimated secondary airframe dimensions.
Table 11.4 Variables that might be used to estimate UAV weights
Table 11.5 Items for which weight estimates may be required and possible dependencies
Table 11.6 Other items for which weight estimates may be required
Table 11.7 Design brief for Decode-1
Table 11.8 Resulting concept design from spreadsheet analysis for Decode-1
Table 11.9 Design geometry from spreadsheet analysis for Decode-1 (in units of mm and to be read in conjunction with Table 11.3 and 11.8)
Table 11.10 Design brief for Decode-2
Table 11.11 Estimated secondary airframe dimensions for Decode-2
Table 11.12 Resulting concept design from spreadsheet analysis for Decode-2
Table 11.13 Design geometry from spreadsheet analysis for Decode-2 (in units of mm and to be read in conjunction with Table 11.11 and 11.12)
Table 11.14 Design brief for SPOTTER
Table 11.15 Estimated secondary airframe dimensions for SPOTTER
Table 11.16 Resulting concept design from spreadsheet analysis for SPOTTER
Table 11.17 Design geometry from spreadsheet analysis for SPOTTER (in units of mm and to be read in conjunction with Table 15 and 16)

Chapter 13: Preliminary Aerodynamic and Stability Analysis

Table 13.1 A summary of some of the Fluent turbulence models based on information provided in Ansys training materials
Table 13.2 Decode-1 eigenvalues as calculated from XFLR5 stability derivatives using the formulae provided by Phillips [24 25] and the estimated inertia properties for a flight speed of 30 m/s and MTOW of 15 kg

Chapter 14: Preliminary Structural Analysis

Table 14.1 Shear forces ( $c014-math-023$ ), bending moments ( $c014-math-024$ ), slopes ( $c014-math-025$ , in radians), and deflections ( $c014-math-026$ ) for Euler–Bernoulli analysis of uniform encastre cantilever beams
Table 14.2 A selection of results from various Abaqus models of the Decode-1 airframe
Table 14.3 Natural frequency results (Hz) using Abaqus modal analysis for the Decode-1 airframe

Chapter 15: Weight and Center of Gravity Control

Table 15.1 Typical weight and LCoG control Table (LCoG is mm forward of the main spar)

Chapter 18: Manufacture

Table 18.1 Typical properties of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) tubes
Table 18.2 Typical properties of SLS nylon 12.
Table 18.3 Typical properties of closed-cell polyurethane floor insulation foam.
Table 18.4 Typical properties of glass-fiber-reinforced plastics.

Chapter 19: Regulatory Approval and Documentation

Table 19.1 Typical small UAS operations manual template part Ai
Table 19.4 Typical small UAS operations manual template parts Bii, C, and D
Table 19.5 Typical summary airframe description
Table 19.6 Typical engine characteristics
Table 19.7 Typical aircraft performance summary in still air
Table 19.8 Radio control channel assignments
Table 19.2 Typical small UAS operations manual template part Aii
Table 19.3 Typical small UAS operations manual template part Bi
Table 19.9 Risk probability definitions (figures refer to flight hours)
Table 19.10 Accident severity definitions
Table 19.11 Risk classification matrix
Table 19.12 Risk class definitions
Table 19.13 Typical failure effects list (partial)
Table 19.14 Typical hazard list (partial)
Table 19.15 Typical accident list (partial)
Table 19.16 Typical mitigation list (partial)
Table 19.17 Typical accident sequences and mitigation list (partial)

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Small Unmanned Fixed-wing Aircraft Design

A Practical Approach

Andrew J. Keane

University of Southampton UK

András Sóbester

University of Southampton UK

James P. Scanlan

University of Southampton UK

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