Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Foreword, Second Edition
Preface, First Edition
Preface, Second Edition
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introduction
References
Chapter 2: The Importance of Insects
2.1 Diversity
2.2 Ecological Role
2.3 Effects on Natural Resources, Agriculture, and Human Health
2.4 Insects and Advances in Science
2.5 Insects and the Public
References
Part I: Insect Biodiversity: Regional Examples
Chapter 3: Insect Biodiversity in the Nearctic Region
3.1 Influence of Insect Biodiversity on Society in the Nearctic Region
3.2 Insect Conservation
3.3 Species Diversity and the State of Knowledge
3.4 Variations in Biodiversity
3.5 Conclusions and Needs
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Amazonian Rainforests and Their Richness and Abundance of Terrestrial Arthropods on the Edge of Extinction: Abiotic–Biotic Players in the Critical Zone
4.1 The Climatic Setting and Critical Zone Establishment
4.2 Characterization of Typical Lowland Rainforest Composition in the Western Basin
4.3 Sampling Arthropod Biodiversity in Amazonian Forests
4.4 Richness of Various Lineages and Guilds
4.5 General Patterns
4.6 Morphospecies Richness to Biodiversity
4.7 Beetles: Life Attributes Have Led to Contemporary Hyperdiversity
4.8 Summary and Guide to Future Research, or “Taking a Small Step into the Biodiversity Vortex”
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Insect Biodiversity in the Afrotropical Region
5.1 What Do We Know about Afrotropical Insects?
5.2 An Information-Management Program
5.3 The Role of Insects in Ecosystem Processes and as Indicators of Environmental Quality – Dung Beetles as a Case Study
5.4 Africa-Wide Pests and Training Appropriate Taxonomists – Fruit Flies as a Case Study
5.5 Sentinel Groups
5.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Biodiversity of Australasian Insects
6.1 Australasia – The Locale
6.2 Some Highlights of Australasian Insect Biodiversity
6.3 Drowning by Numbers? How Many Insect Species are in Australasia?
6.4 Australasian Insect Biodiversity – Overview and Special Elements
6.5 Threatening Processes to Australasian Insect Biodiversity
6.6 Australasian Biodiversity Conservation
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Insect Biodiversity in the Palearctic Region
7.1 Preface: Societal Importance of Biodiversity in the Palearctic Region
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Geographic Position, Climate, and Zonality
7.4 General Features of Palearctic Insect Biodiversity
7.5 Biodiversity of Some Insect Groups in the Palearctic
7.6 Biodiversity of Insect Herbivores
7.7 Boundaries and Insect Biodiversity
7.8 Local Biodiversity
7.9 Insect Biodiversity and Habitats
7.10 Insect Biodiversity and the Mountains
7.11 Temporal Changes in Insect Biodiversity
7.12 Insect Diversity in Major Biogeographical Divisions of the Palearctic
Acknowledgments
References
Part II: Insect Biodiversity: Taxon Examples
Chapter 8: Biodiversity of Aquatic Insects
8.1 Overview of Taxa
8.2 Species Numbers
8.3 Societal Benefits and Risks
8.4 Biodiversity Concerns for Aquatic Insects
References
Chapter 9: Biodiversity of Diptera
9.1 Overview of Taxa
9.2 Societal Importance
9.3 Diptera of Forensic, Medicolegal, and Medical Importance
9.4 Diptera as Model Organisms and Research Tools
9.5 Diptera in Conservation
9.6 Diptera as Part of Our Cultural Legacy
References
Chapter 10: Biodiversity of Heteroptera
10.1 Overview of the Heteroptera
10.2 The Importance of Heteropteran Biodiversity
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11: Biodiversity of Coleoptera
11.1 Overview of Extant Taxa
11.2 Overview of Fossil Taxa
11.3 Societal Benefits and Risks
11.4 Threatened Beetles
11.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12: Biodiversity of Hymenoptera
12.1 Evolution and Higher Classification
12.2 Numbers of Species and Individuals
12.3 Morphological and Biological Diversity
12.4 Importance to Humans
12.5 Ecological Importance
12.6 Conservation
12.7 Fossils
12.8 Collecting, Preservation, and Study Techniques
12.9 Taxonomic Diversity
12.10 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13: Diversity and Significance of Lepidoptera: A Phylogenetic Perspective
13.1 Relevance of Lepidoptera: Science
13.2 Relevance of Lepidoptera: Society
13.3 Diversity and Diversification: A Clarification of Numbers and Challenges
13.4 State of Lepidopteran Systematics and Phylogenetics
13.5 General Overview
13.6 Needs and Challenges for Advancing Lepidopteran Studies
Acknowledgments
References
Part III: Insect Biodiversity: Tools and Approaches
Chapter 14: The Science of Insect Taxonomy: Prospects and Needs
14.1 The What and Why of Taxonomy
14.2 Insect Taxonomy: Missions and “Big Questions”
14.3 Insect Taxonomy's Grand Challenge Questions
14.4 Transforming Insect Taxonomy
14.5 Insect Taxonomy: Needs and Priorities
14.6 Accelerating Descriptive Taxonomy
14.7 Beware Sirens of Expediency
14.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Insect Species – Concepts and Practice
15.1 Early Species Concepts – Linnaeus
15.2 Biological Species Concepts
15.3 Phylogenetic Species Concepts
15.4 Species Concepts and Speciation – a Digression?
15.5 Insect Species – Practical Problems
15.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Molecular Dimensions of Insect Taxonomy in the Genomics Era
16.1 Opportunities in Insect Taxonomy
16.2 Genomic Methods
16.3 General Challenges and Considerations
16.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: DNA Barcodes and Insect Biodiversity
17.1 Species Concepts and Recognition
17.2 DNA Barcoding Methodology
17.3 Basal Hexapod Orders
17.4 Archaeognatha (Bristletails) and Zygentoma (Silverfish)
17.5 Odonata (Dragonflies)
17.6 Ephemeroptera (Mayflies)
17.7 Orthoptera (Grasshoppers)
17.8 Phasmatodea (Walking Sticks), Embioptera (Webspinners), Grylloblattodea (Icecrawlers), and Mantophasmatodea (Gladiators)
17.9 Plecoptera (Stoneflies) and Dermaptera (Earwigs)
17.10 Mantodea (Mantids)
17.11 Blattodea (Cockroaches) and Isoptera (Termites)
17.12 Psocoptera (Booklice) and Phthiraptera (Lice)
17.13 Thysanoptera (Thrips) and Hemiptera (True Bugs)
17.14 Hymenoptera (Wasps)
17.15 Strepsiptera (Twisted-wing Parasites)
17.16 Coleoptera (Beetles)
17.17 Neuroptera (Lacewings), Megaloptera (Dobsonflies), and Raphidioptera (Snakeflies)
17.18 Trichoptera (Caddisflies)
17.19 Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths)
17.20 Diptera (Flies)
17.21 Siphonaptera (Fleas) and Mecoptera (Scorpionflies)
17.22 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 18: Insect Biodiversity Informatics
18.1 Biodiversity Data
18.2 Technical Infrastructure
18.3 Standards
18.4 Current Status and Impediments to Progress
18.5 Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 19: Parasitoid Biodiversity and Insect Pest Management
19.1 What Is a Parasitoid?
19.2 Biodiversity and Success of Insect Parasitoids
19.3 Systematics, Parasitoids, and Pest Management
19.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 20: The Taxonomy of Crop Pests: The Aphids
20.1 Historical Background
20.2 Economic Importance and Early Taxonomy
20.3 Early Aphid Studies – A North American Example
20.4 Recognizing Aphid Species
20.5 The Focus Becomes Finer
20.6 Adventive Aphid Species
20.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Adventive (Non-Native) Insects and the Consequences for Science and Society of Species that Become Invasive
21.1 Terminology
21.2 Distributional Status: Native or Adventive?
21.3 Global Transport: Pathways and Vectors
21.4 Early History of Adventive Insects in North America
21.5 Numbers, Taxonomic Composition, and Geographic Origins of Adventive Insects
21.6 Impact of Adventive Insects
21.7 Economic Considerations: Agriculture, Forestry, and Horticulture
21.8 Implications for Animal and Human Health
21.9 Ecological Impacts
21.10 Biological Control
21.11 Biological Invasions and Global Climate Change
21.12 Systematics, Biodiversity, and Adventive Species
21.13 Concluding Thoughts
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 22: Biodiversity of Blood-sucking Flies: Implications for Humanity
22.1 Numbers and Estimates
22.2 Overview of Blood-sucking Flies and Diseases
22.3 Rationale for Biodiversity Studies of Blood-sucking Flies
22.4 Biodiversity Exploration
22.5 Societal Consequences of Disregarding Biodiversity
22.6 Present and Future Concerns
22.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 23: Reconciling Ethical and Scientific Issues for Insect Conservation
23.1 Valuing Nature
23.2 Insects and Ecosystems
23.3 Two Challenges
23.4 Synthesizing Deeper Values and Practical Issues
23.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 24: Taxonomy and Management of Insect Biodiversity
24.1 Insect Biodiversity
24.2 Biodiversity Loss and Humanity
24.3 Biodiversity and Taxonomy
24.4 Biodiversity Inventory and Ecology
24.5 Backyard Biodiversity and Sustainability
24.6 Taxonomic Bottlenecks in Managing Insect Biodiversity
24.7 Advancing the Science of Insect Biodiversity
References
Chapter 25: Insect Biodiversity – Millions and Millions
Acknowledgments
References
Index of Arthropod Taxa Arranged by Order and Family.
Index of Arthropod Taxa Arranged Alphabetically.
Index of non‐Arthropod taxa arranged alphabetically.
Subject Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
Part I
List of Illustrations
Chapter 3: Insect Biodiversity in the Nearctic Region
Figure 3.1 Ecological biomes of the Nearctic realm, adapted from data available from the World Wildlife Fund at http://www.worldwildlife.org/biomes, as described by Olson et al. (2001). 0, permanent ice; 1, tundra; 2, boreal forest; 3, moist temperate forest; 4, temperate grasslands; 5, temperate broad-leaf and mixed forest; 6, temperate coniferous forest (southeast); 7, xeric shrublands and deserts; 8, subtropical grasslands (Gulf coastal grasslands); 9, temperate grasslands (Central California); 10, Mediterranean (California chaparral and woodlands); 11, warm temperate evergreen (oak-pine) forest.
Chapter 4: Amazonian Rainforests and Their Richness and Abundance of Terrestrial Arthropods on the Edge of Extinction: Abiotic–Biotic Players in the Critical Zone
Figure 4.1 The elements constituting the Critical Zone (from Admundson et al. 2007).
Figure 4.2 Homo sapiens sapiens , 4000 bce to 1500 ce , Earth: it’s mine and I can do anything I want with it (anthropocentricism).
Figure 4.3 Extent of the Amazon Basin.
Figure 4.4 Homo sapiens industralis : “If you don’t know it, you can’t love it; if you don’t love it, you won’t save it.” – Dan Janzen.
Figure 4.5 Map generated using Google Earth, showing locations of the two forest plots under study in eastern Ecuador (OG, Piraña; TBS, Tiputini Biodiversity Station).
Figure 4.6 Homo sapiens cyberphilia : organize your inventory – know what you are working with.
Figure 4.7 Canopy-fogging technique, showing collecting sheet and fogger.
Figure 4.8 Diagrammatic view: oblique forest cross transect, 100 m × 10 m.
Figure 4.9 Diagrammatic view: sampling column.
Figure 4.10 Sheet (3 m × 3 m) used to catch falling arthropods.
Figure 4.11 Adult arthropod target-taxa abundances for the Piraña (Onkone Gare) 1994–96 canopy samples.
Figure 4.12 Coleoptera taxa examined in Yasuni from 1994 to 2006. Images were taken with the EntoVision extended focus photography system (Alticinae and Cleridae not figured). For each taxon, the number of observed morphospecies (as of 2008) is listed, as well as predicted numbers of species based on accumulation curves and ICE (incidence-based coverage estimator) calculations (Erwin et al. 2005).
Figure 4.13 Histograms (a) showing morphospecies distribution curves for six Coleoptera groups from the 900 canopy samples collected from 1994 to 1996 from the Piraña (OG) plot (Otidocephalinae and Entiminae = Curculionidae; Strongyliini = Tenebrionidae). The shape of the curve for the Mordellidae (b) suggests oligarchic dominance by six morphospecies in three genera. These morphospecies, represented by numerical codes (c), were present in abundances of greater than 50 individuals in 900 samples. Further research and incorporation of new technologies will increase taxonomic resolution and put morphospecies into phylogenetic context (d). Images were taken with the EntoVision extended-focus photography system.
Figure 4.14 Taxon pulse model (Erwin 1979, 1985).
Chapter 6: Biodiversity of Australasian Insects
Figure 6.1 The Australasian region.
Figure 6.2 Logo for the Annual Australian Entomological Society meeting, incorporating bogong moths and Parliament House, Canberra.
Figure 6.3 The Lord Howe Island stick insect against its home, Ball's Pyramid.
Chapter 7: Insect Biodiversity in the Palearctic Region
Figure 7.1 (a) Main divisions of the Palearctic Region (after Emeljanov 1974, simplified). I, Arctic (Circumpolar tundra) region; II, Taiga (Euro-Siberian) region; III, European (nemoral) region; IV, Stenopean (nemoral) region; V, Hesperian (evergreen forest) region; Va, Macaronesian subregion; Vb, Mediterranean subregion; VI, Orthrian (evergreen forest) region; VII, Scythian (steppe) region; VIIa, West Scythian subregion; VIIb, East Scythian subregion; VIII, Sethian (desert) region; VIIIa, Saharo-Arabian subregion; VIIIb, Irano-Turanian subregion; VIIIc, Central Asian subregion. (b) Northern Russia, Yamal Peninsula (photo A. K. Tishechkin). (c) Northeastern Russia, Magadan Province, northern taiga (photo D. I. Berman). (d) Russia, Smolensk District, Ugra River near Skotinino Village, mixed forest (photo A. Konstantinov). (e) Russia, Caucasus (photo M. Volkovitsh).
Figure 7.2 Palearctic insects in natural habitats. (a) Calosoma sycophanta (L.) (Coleoptera: Carabidae) (Turkey) (photo A. Konstantinov). (b) Nemoptera sinuata Olivier (Neuroptera: Nemopteridae) (Turkey) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (c) Eristalis tenax L. (Diptera: Syrphidae) (Turkey) (photo A. Konstantinov). (d) Cryptocephalus duplicatus Suffrian (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) (Turkey) (photo A. Konstantinov). (e) Poecilimon sp. (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) (Turkey) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (f) Capnodis carbonaria (Klug) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) (Turkey) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (g) Cyphosoma euphraticum (Laporte and Gory) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) (southern Russia) (photo M. Volkovitsh).
Figure 7.3 Palearctic insects in natural habitats. (a) Julodis variolaris (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) (Kazakhstan) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (b) Julodella abeillei (Théry) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) (Turkey) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (c) Mallosia armeniaca Pic (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) (Turkey) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (d) Trigonoscelis schrencki Gebler (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) (Kazakhstan) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (e) Saga pedo Pallas (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) (Kazakhstan) (photo M. Volkovitsh). (f) Piazomias sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (Kazakhstan) (photo M. Volkovitsh).
Figure 7.4 Coleoptera and Mecoptera. (a) Aphthona coerulea Goeze (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). (b) Clavicornaltica dali Konstantinov and Duckett (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). (c) Mniophila muscorum Koch (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). (d) Kiskeya baorucae Konstantinov and Chamorro-Lacayo (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). (e) Cryptocephalus ochroloma Gebler (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). (f) Margarinotus (Kurilister ) kurbatovi Tishechkin (Coleoptera: Histeridae). (g) Boreus hyemalis (L.) (Mecoptera: Boreidae).
Figure 7.5 Coleoptera. (a) Carabus lopatini Morawitz (Coleoptera: Carabidae). (b) Cimberis attelaboides (F.) (Coleoptera: Nemonychidae). (c) Parorobitis gibbus Korotyaev, O’Brien and Konstantinov (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). (d) Theodorinus lopezcoloni Korotyaev and Alonso-Zarazaga, 2010. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).
Figure 7.6 Examples of Tenebrionidae from the Taman’ Peninsula (photos K. V. Makarov). (a) Tentyria nomas (Pallas). (b) Stenosis punctiventris (Eschscholtz). (c) Asida lutosa Solier. (d) Pimelia subglobosa subglobosa (Pallas). (e) Blaps halophila Fischer von Waldheim. (f) Oodescelis polita (Sturm). (g) Dendarus punctatus (Audinet-Serville). (h) Pedinus femoralis femoralis (L.). (i) Leichenum pictum (Fabricius). (j) Melanimon tibialis tibialis (Fabricius). (k) Ammobius rufus (Lucas). (l) Gonocephalum granulatum pusillum (Fabricius). (m) Opatrum sabulosum sabulosum (L.). (n) Crypticus quisquilius quisquilius (L.). (o) Alphitophagus bifasciatus (Say). (p) Diaclina testudinea (Piller and Mitterpacher). (q) Phaleria pontica Semenov. (r) Phtora reitteri (Seidlitz). (s) Scaphidema metallicum (Fabricius). (t) Trachyscelis aphodioides Latreille. (u) Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer). (v) Tenebrio obscurus Fabricius. (w) Centorus tibialis Zoufal. (x) Cossyphus tauricus Steven. (y) Laena starcki Reitter. (z) Nalassus faldermanni (Faldermann).
Figure 7.7 (a) Russia, Astrakhan Province, near Lake Baskunchak, steppe (photo M. Volkovitsh). (b) Armenia, Vedi desert (photo A. Konstantinov). (c) Russia, Sakhalin Island, mixed forest (photo A. Konstantinov). (d) Italy, Sicily, mountain forest with Fagus (photo M. Volkovitsh). (e) Nepal, Lantang District, mountain forest (3200 m) (photo A. Konstantinov). (f) Bhutan, Shemgang District (2900 m) (photo A. Konstantinov).
Chapter 8: Biodiversity of Aquatic Insects
Figure 8.1 The nutrient spiraling concept provides an understanding of the way that organic nutrients cascade through coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM), dissolved organic matter (DOM), and fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) by the action of physical, chemical, and biological agents as these nutrients pass downstream (Newbold et al. 1982, 1983).
Chapter 9: Biodiversity of Diptera
Figure 9.1 Adult Diptera. (a) Tanyderidae (Araucoderus ) habitus, dorsal view. (b) Axymyiidae (Axymyia ), lateral view. (c) Limoniidae (Prionolabis ) mating pair, oblique-dorsal view. (d) Bibionidae (Bibio ) habitus, oblique-lateral view. (e) Culicidae (Culex ) feeding on ranid frog. (f) Empididae (Empis ) habitus, lateral view. (g) Pipunculidae taking flight, oblique-lateral view. (h) Micropezidae (Grallipeza ) habitus, lateral view. (i) Diopsidae (Teleopsis ) head, frontal view. (j) Conopidae (Stylogaster ) mating pair, lateral view. (k) Asilidae (Proctacanthus ) feeding on dragonfly, oblique-dorsal view. (l) Sarcophagidae (Sarcophaga ) habitus, dorsal view. (m) Scathophagidae (Scathophaga ) habitus, oblique-lateral view. (n) Stratiomyidae habitus, lateral view. (o) Calliphoridae (Hemipyrellia ) habitus, frontolateral view. Images by G.W.C. (a–c, h, i, m), S. Marshall (e–g, j, k), M. Rice (d), and I. Sivec (l, n, o).
Figure 9.2 Larval Diptera. (a) Tipulidae (Epiphragma ) habitus, dorsal (top) and ventral (bottom) views. (b) Axymyiidae (Axymyia ) habitus dorsal view. (c) Nymphomyiidae (Nymphomyia ) habitus lateral view. (d) Deuterophlebiidae (Deuterophlebia ) habitus, dorsal view. (e) Psychodidae (Pericoma ) habitus, lateral view. (f) Blephariceridae (Horaia ) habitus, dorsal (left) and ventral (right) views. (g) Calliphoridae (Lucilia ) habitus, dorsal view. (h) Tephritidae (Eurosta ) habitus, ventral view. (i) Syrphidae (Syrphus ) feeding on aphids, dorsal view. (j) Syrphidae (Microdon ) on glass, lateral view. (k) Sciomyzidae (Tetanocera ) habitus, lateral view. (l) Stratiomyidae (Caloparyphus ) habitus, dorsal view.
Figure 9.3 Scanning electron micrographs of Diptera. (a) Phoridae (Thaumatoxena ) adult habitus, lateral view. (b) Nymphomyiidae (Nymphomyia ) adult head, lateral view. (c) Blephariceridae (Blepharicera ) adult head, frontal view. (d) Phoridae (Termitophilomya ) adult head, lateral view. (e) Blephariceridae (Agathon ) larva habitus, oblique-frontal view. (f) Ptychopteridae (Bittacomorpha ) larval mouthparts, ventral view. (g) Athericidae (Atherix ) larval head, lateral view. (h) Calliphoridae (Onesia ) larval head, ventral view. (i) Sarcophagidae (Metopia ) larval head, oblique-ventral view. (j) Calliphoridae (Bellardia ) larval head, ventral view.
Chapter 10: Biodiversity of Heteroptera
Figure 10.1 Enicocephalomorpha, Dipsocoromorpha, Gerromorpha, Nepomorpha, and Leptopodomorpha. (a) Enicocephalomorpha: Systelloderes biceps (Say) [Enicocephalidae]. (b–d) Dipsocoromorpha. (b) Ceratocombus vagans McAtee and Malloch [Ceratocombidae]. (c) Cryptostemma uhleri McAtee and Malloch [Dipsocoridae]. (d) Glyptocombus saltator Heidemann [Schizopteridae]. (e–j) Gerromorpha. (e) Gerris marginatus Say [Gerridae: Gerroidea]. (f) Microvelia ashlocki Polhemus [Veliidae: Gerroidea]. (g) Hebrus concinnus Uhler [Hebridae: Hebroidea]. (h) Hydrometra martini Kirkaldy [Hydrometridae: Hydrometroidea]. (i) Darinwinivelia fosteri Anderson and Polhemus [Mesoveliidae: Mesoveloidea]. (j) Mesovelia mulsanti White [Mesoveliidae: Mesoveloidea]. (k–r) Nepomorpha. (k) Sigara hubbelli (Hungerford) [Corixidae: Corixoidea]. (l) Pelocoris carolinensis Torre-Bueno [Naucoridae: Naucoroidea]. (m) Belostoma flumineum Say [Belostomatidae: Nepoidea]. (n) Nepa apiculata Uhler [Nepinae: Nepidae: Nepoidea]. (o) Notonecta undulata Say [Notonectidae: Notonectoidea]. (p) Neoplea striola (Fieber) [Pleidae: Notonectoidea]. (q) Gelastocoris oculatus (Fabricius) [Gelastocoridae: Ochteroidea]. (r) Ochterus americanus (Uhler) [Ochteridae: Ochteroidea]. (s,t) Leptopodomorpha. (s) Patapius spinosus (Rossi) [Leptopodidae: Leptopodoidea]. (t) Saldula galapagosana Polhemus [Saldidae: Saldoidea]. (a,b,c after Froeschner 1944; 1988d, Henry 1988h; e,h,k–r, Froeschner 1962; f,i,t, Froeschner 1985; g,j, Froeschner 1949; s, Froeschner and Peña 1985.)
Figure 10.2 Cimicomorpha. (a) Orius insidiosus (Say) [Anthocoridae: Cimicoidea]. (b) Cimex lectularius Linnaeus [Cimicidae: Cimicoidea]. (c) Lyctocoris campestris (Fabricius) [Lyctocoridae: Cimicoidea]. (d) Hesperoctenes eumops Ferris and Usinger [Polyctenidae: Cimicoidea]. (e) Fulvius imbecilis (Say) [Cylapinae: Miridae: Miroidea]. (f) Dicyphus agilis (Uher) [Bryocorinae: Miridae: Miroidea]. (g) Bothynotus modestus Wirtner [Deraeocorinae: Miridae: Miroidea]. (h) Poecilocapsus lineatus (Fabricius) [Mirinae: Miridae: Miroidea]. (i) Leptopterna dolabrata (Linnaeus) [Mirinae: Miridae: Miroidea]. (j) Ceratocapsus modestus (Uhler) [Orthotylinae: Miridae: Miroidea]. (k) Cyrtopeltocoris illini Knight [Phylinae: Miridae: Miroidea]. (l) Xylastodoris luteolus Barber [Thaumastocoridae: Miroidea]. (m) Atheas mimeticus Heidemann [Tingidae: Miroidea]. (n) Corythucha ciliata (Say) [Tingidae: Miroidea]. (o) Nabis americoferus Carayon [Nabidae: Naboidea]. (p) Pagasa fusca (Stein) [Nabidae: Naboidea]. (a–c,e–k after Froeschner 1949; 1988d, Froeschner 1988e; l redrawn after Barber 1920; m–p, Froeschner 1944.)
Figure 10.3 Cimicomorpha and Pentatomomorpha. (a–e) Cimicomorpha. (a) Apiomerus crassipes (Fabricius) [Harpactorinae: Reduviidae: Reduvioidea]. (b) Arilus cristatus (Say) [Harpactorinae: Reduviidae: Reduvioidea]. (c) Microtomus purcis (Drury) [Microtominae: Reduviidae: Reduvioidea]. (d) Phymata pennsylvanica Handlirsch [Phymatinae: Reduviidae: Reduvioidea]. (e) Triatoma sanguisuga (Leconte) [Triatominae: Reduviidae: Reduvioidea]. (f–t) Pentatomomorpha. (f) Aradus acutus Say [Aradidae: Aradoidea]. (g) Acanthocephala femorata (Fabricius) [Coreinae: Coreidae: Coreoidea]. (h) Leptoglossus phyllopus (Linnaeus) [Coreinae: Coreidae: Coreoidea]. (i) Chelinidea vittiger Uhler [Coreinae: Coreidae: Coreoidea]. (j) Arhyssus lateralis (Say) [Rhopalinae: Rhopalidae: Coreoidea]. (k) Boisea trivittata (Say) [Serinethinae: Rhopalidae: Coreoidea]. (l) Dicranocephalus insularis (Dallas) [Stenocephalidae: Coreoidea]. (m) Pronotacantha annulata Uhler [Berytidae: Lygaeoidea]. (n) Blissus leucopterus (Say) [Blissidae: Lygaeoidea]. (o) Geocoris punctipes (Say) [Geocoridae: Lygaeoidea]. (p) Lygaeus kalmii Stål [Lygaeidae: Lygaeoidea]. (q) Phlegyas abbreviatus (Uhler) [Pachygronthidae: Lygaeoidea]. (r) Parapiesma cinereum (Say) [Piesmatidae: Lygaeoidea]. (s) Myodocha serripes Olivier [Myodochinae: Rhyparochromidae: Lygaeoidea]. (t) Pseudopachybrachius basalis (Dallas) [Myodochinae: Rhyparochromidae: Lygaeoidea]. (a–e after Froeschner 1944; f–k,n–t, Froeschner 1942; l, Froeschner 1985; m, Froeschner and Henry 1988.)
Figure 10.4 Pentatomomorpha. (a) Rolstonus rolstoni Froeschner [Acanthosomatidae: Pentatomoidea]. (b) Scaptocoris castaneus Perty [Cephalocteinae: Cydnidae: Pentatomoidea]. (c) Corimelaena pulicaria (Germar) [Thyreocoridae: Pentatomoidea]. (d) Alcaeorrhynchus grandis (Dallas) [Asopinae: Pentatomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (e) Edessa florida Barber [Edessinae: Pentatomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (f) Aelia americana Dallas [Pentatominae: Pentatomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (g) Murgantia histrionica (Hahn) [Pentatominae: Pentatomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (h) Oebalus pugnax (Fabricius) [Pentatominae: Pentatomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (i) Parabrochymena arborea (Say) [Pentatominae: Pentatomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (j) Amaurochrous cinctipes (Say) [Podopinae: Pentatomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (k) Camirus porosus (Germar) [Scutelleridae: Pentatomoidea]. (l) Sphyrocoris obliquus (Germar) [Scutelleridae: Pentatomoidea]. (m) Piezosternum subulatum (Thunberg) [Tessaratomidae: Pentatomoidea]. (n) Arhaphe carolina Herrich-Schaeffer [Largidae: Pyrrhocoroidea]. (o) Largus succinctus (Linnaeus) [Largidae: Pyrrhocoroidea]. (p) Dysdercus lunulatus Uhler [Pyrrhocoridae: Pyrrhocoroidea]. (a after Froeschner 1997; b–m, Froeschner 1941; n,o, Froeschner 1944; p, Froeschner 1985.)
Chapter 11: Biodiversity of Coleoptera
Figure 11.1 Examples of lesser-known representatives of the four suborders of Coleoptera (clockwise from top left): Ptomaphagus hirtus (Tellkampf) (Polyphaga) is found only in caves in Kentucky, USA; Lepicerus inaequalis Motschulsky (Myxophaga) lives in moist sand from Mexico to Venezuela; Arthropterus wilsoni (Westwood) (Adephaga) is associated with ants under bark and logs in southeastern Australia; and Rhipsideigma raffrayi (Fairmaire) (Archostemata) is found in rotten logs in the drier forests of Madagascar.
Figure 11.2 Diversity of Coleoptera families (from Table 11.1). The 11 largest beetle families (each with 6000 or more described species) are shown. The remaining 154 families (each with fewer than 6000 described species) are combined into “other families,” together representing 24% of the diversity.
Figure 11.3 Percentage (aggregated in 10% increments) of Canadian Coleoptera species included in the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD: http://www.boldsystems.org). Percentage coverage is the number of barcoding index numbers (BINs) for a family divided by the number of known species (from Table 11.4). Percentage coverage values of more than 100% indicate poorly known groups in need of further taxonomic and survey research.
Figure 11.4 Percentage (aggregated in 5% increments) of North American Coleoptera species included in the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD: http://www.boldsystems.org). Percentage coverage is the number of barcoding index numbers (BINs) for a family divided by the number of known species (from Table 11.4). Percentage coverage values of more than 100% indicate poorly known groups in need of further taxonomic and survey research.
Chapter 12: Biodiversity of Hymenoptera
Figure 12.1 Dicopomorpha echmepterygis Mockford, paratype (Mymaridae). (a) Entire body, lateral. (b) Ventral (with fungal hypha coming out of mouth opening). Images by Klaus Bolte.
Figure 12.2 Kikiki huna , habitus. Kikiki huna (Mymaridae) is the smallest known winged insect. Image by J. Read.
Figure 12.3 (a) Cages, trays and fine-mesh net for sorting bulk samples of insects. Also shown, coarse fraction of insect material in coarse-mesh cage. (b) Results of finer scale sorting through finer-mesh cages.
Figure 12.4 Lateral habitus views of representative families of Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). Top row: Tanaostigma stanleyi LaSalle (Tanaostigmatidae), Encyrtus fuscus (Howard) (Encyrtidae), Signiphora sp. (Signiphoridae). Second row: Brachymeria tibialis (Walker) (Chalcididae), Leucospis affinis Say (Leucospidae), Rotoita sp. (Rotoitidae). Third Row: Ormyrus vacciniicola Ashmead (Ormyridae), Kapala sulcifacies (Cameron) (Eucharitidae), Perilampus hyalinus Say (Perilampidae). Bottom Row: Elasmus atratus Howard (Eulophidae), Eulophus orgyiae (Fitch) (Eulophidae), Epiclerus nearcticus Yoshimoto (Tetracampidae). Images by Klaus Bolte.
Figure 12.5 Pleistodontes addicotti Wiebes (Agaoninae). (a) Female. (b) Male. Images by Klaus Bolte.
Chapter 13: Diversity and Significance of Lepidoptera: A Phylogenetic Perspective
Figure 13.1 Phylogenetic skeleton of basal lepidopteran superfamilies, revised in part following Regier et al. (2015) but retaining Acanthopteroctetoidea and not specifying paraphyly of Palaephatoidea. (Table 13.1 provides further elaboration).
Figure 13.2 Reduction of Regier et al. (2013: Figure 3), modified in part by retaining usage of Nieukerken et al. (2011) of Carposinoidea in place of Copromorphoidea. The paraphyly of Tineoidea and the polyphyly of Carposinoidea (= Copromorphoidea) and Palaephatoidea obtained in analyses of Regier et al. (2013, 2015) are not reflected; as in those studies, Whalleyanoidea and Simaethistoidea are not included.
Chapter 14: The Science of Insect Taxonomy: Prospects and Needs
Figure 14.1 A new species of insect held by George Beccaloni of London's Natural History Museum is the longest ever recorded.
Figure 14.2 A representation of a taxon “knowledge community.” Taxonomists are represented as orbits around a “nucleus” of taxonomy-specific cyberinfrastructure. Taxonomists' “orbits” vary through time. At one point a given taxonomist is working solo on a taxon; at other times, variable numbers of taxonomists converge to focus their collective attention on rapid progress in species description or testing, as in the US National Science Foundation-funded Planetary Biodiversity Inventory projects. The nucleus of cyberinfrastructure includes natural history collections (specimens), literature, databases, digital instrumentation, robotics, descriptive software, and so forth. Advances in knowledge are immediately stored and made accessible through various electronic means and databases, collectively known as a taxon “knowledge base.” This is analogous to the traditional return of improved and expanded knowledge through publications, with the exception that it is immediately and openly accessible, up to date, and can be delivered in a user-defined format. For example, taxonomists can generate traditional monographs; morphologists can make comparisons of homologues in MorphoBank; phylogeneticists can access and edit full character matrices; eco-tourists can generate field guides; and field researchers can engage a rich toolbox of species-identification aids, including interactive keys delivered to handheld devices, DNA “barcodes,” and so forth. Graphic by Frances Fawcett, after Wheeler (2008b).
Figure 14.3 Relationship of the taxon “knowledge community” with a proposed taxon-knowledge bank from which user-specified “publications” may be generated on demand. Graphic by Frances Fawcett, after Wheeler (2008b).
Figure 14.4 Flowchart showing bottlenecks in the process of taxonomic research. See the section on “Accelerating Descriptive Taxonomy” for explanation.
Chapter 19: Parasitoid Biodiversity and Insect Pest Management
Figure 19.1 Summary of distribution of host families by parasitoid family. Host groups: Ar, Araneae; Or, Orthoptera; He, Heteroptera; SA, Sternorrhyncha (primarily) and Auchenorrhyncha; Dc, Dictyoptera; Ne, Neuroptera; Cl, Coleoptera; Dp, Diptera; Hy, Hymenoptera; Le, Lepidoptera; Ot, other groups. Gray bars indicate host groups with the largest numbers of economically important pest groups. Redrawn with permission from Noyes and Hayat (1994).
Figure 19.2 Proportion of higher level hymenopteran parasitoids attacking (a) lepidopteran leaf miners of broadleaf plants in southern Ontario (J.H., unpublished data); (b) Phyllonorycter blancardella in an unsprayed apple orchard in Ontario (J.H., unpublished data); (c) lepidopteran leaf miners of broadleaf plants in California (Braconidae not broken out to genus and species) (Gates et al. 2002); and (d) Phyllocnistis citrella worldwide (no Ichneumonoidea parasitoids) (Schauff et al. 1998). Parts (a), (b), and (d) are based on number of species sampled; (c) is based on the number of individuals. Numbers of genera and species are in parentheses. Years refer to sampling periods.
Figure 19.3 Problems of barcoding using only cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). Presented is a phylogram for distinct genotypes from different geographic populations of cryptic species in the Aphelinus varipes complex, with their source aphid host, geographic locality of collection, and whether they are reproductively compatible (gray line) or reproductively incompatible (dashed line) (Heraty et al. 2007). The phylogeny is based on six genes and insertion/deletion events, and includes three populations (bold) from published partial sequences as indicated. COI changes are indicated with black bars (unique changes) and gray bars (homoplastic changes). COI changes are not correlated across the phylogeny with reproductive incompatibility, which supports a minimum of five species. The three previously published populations would not be correctly associated or discriminated using COI alone. The populations from Zhu et al. (2000) and Israel were not tested for compatibility. Populations tested by Wu et al. (2004) and the Georgia (Diuraphis noxia ), China, and Japan populations tested by Heraty et al. (2007) were partially compatible with each other based on hybrid dysgenesis in backcrosses to Japan. In all cases, males will pursue and court heterospecific females, but females reject heterospecific males before mating (K. Hopper, unpublished data).
Chapter 20: The Taxonomy of Crop Pests: The Aphids
Figure 20.1 (a) Some of the early aphid work produced by Réaumur (1737) included his woodcuts, which were used for identification. Linnaeus (1758) referenced both of the aphid species shown here in his work. Figure 1–4 depict Aphis rosae (= Macrosiphum rosae ), and Figure 5–15 depict Aphis sambuci . (b) Nearly three centuries later, taxonomists are categorizing M. rosae and A. sambuci with DNA barcodes – short DNA sequences taken from a uniform locality of the genome.
Figure 20.2 (Insert) Cumulative aphid names proposed versus cumulative currently valid aphid names from 1758 to 2015. (Main) Number of proposed aphid names versus valid aphid names from 1758 to 2000.
Chapter 22: Biodiversity of Blood-sucking Flies: Implications for Humanity
Figure 22.1 Representative females of major groups of blood-sucking flies. (a) No-see-um (Ceratopogonidae). (b) Mosquito (Culicidae). (c) Louse fly (Hippoboscidae). (d) Biting snipe fly (Rhagionidae). (e) Black fly (Simuliidae). (f) Horse fly (Tabanidae). (a–d) and (f) from Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada with permission under terms of the Government of Canada’s Open Government License; (e) from Adler et al. (2004),
Chapter 23: Reconciling Ethical and Scientific Issues for Insect Conservation
Figure 23.1 The Kubusi stream damsel Metacnemis valida , a narrow-range endemic in South Africa that is Red Listed as Endangered, as its stream habitats are being shaded out by invasive alien trees such as Acacia spp.
Figure 23.2 Non-consumptive instrumental value can be the viewing of insects that delight us, such as this rare, paleoendemic white malachite Chlorolestes umbratus in the Harold Porter Nature Reserve, South Africa.
Figure 23.3 A significant approach to insect conservation is the use of set-aside land in agro-forestry production landscapes. Shown here is a grassland ecological network in a pine plantation in South Africa. This remnant set-aside land has great conservation value for a whole range of biodiversity while maintaining ecosystem processes such as the historic hydrology.
Figure 23.4 Insect conservation is about conserving connectedness. Here, dung beetles are burying elephant dung within hours of deposition and inside an ecological network in an agro-forestry landscape. This is stewardship of the landscape while including significant ecological interactions.
Figure 23.5 Around a central population tenet, based on the ‘metapopulation trio’ of maintaining large patch size, reduced patch isolation and good patch quality, are five design principles of (1) maintaining protected areas wherever possible, especially for habitat specialist and sensitive species, (2) maintaining natural, quality habitat heterogeneity, (3) reducing contrast wherever possible alongside a transformed patch, (4) softening the landscape with conservancies, agri-environment schemes and organic agriculture, and (5) connecting protected areas or patches of high quality with corridors, a group of which constitute an ecological network. Yet a landscape has to be maintained in its historic condition, and so it is essential to have a management principle that, is its basic form, seeks to maintain natural disturbance such as fire and grazing where appropriate (bottom middle). Humans cannot be ignored, and so there is always a socio-ecological overlay (bottom right).
Figure 23.6 Besides maintaining set-aside land in the form of interconnected corridors (ecological networks; in the far distance), landscape-scale conservation for insects and other biodiversity involves preserving features of the land (mesofilters), such as rocks, and the natural range of habitat (biotope) heterogeneity, which is often maintained by differential processes (such as localized levels of rainwater percolation) and by stochastic processes such as fire.
Figure 23.7 It is an extraordinary phenomenon that the ratio of estimated biomass of vascular plants to that of metazoan animals (mostly insects) is about 99.999 to 0.001, whereas the estimated total number of vascular plant species to that of animal species is almost the exact converse of 0.026 to 99.974.
Figure 23.8 An increasingly strong mutualism between two alien insects, the ant Pheidole megacephala and the scale insect Pulvinaria urbicola , almost led to “meltdown” of the biodiversity on the small Seychelles island of Cousine through destruction of the native trees, especially Pisonia grandis , a keystone species. The mutualism was finally broken by a combination of highly selective insecticide baiting and the upsurge of natural enemies of the scale, returning the island to a semblance of its historic condition.
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction
Table 1.1 World totals of described, living species in the 29 orders of the class Insecta, tallied May 2016.
Chapter 3: Insect Biodiversity in the Nearctic Region
Table 3.1 Census of Nearctic insects.
Chapter 4: Amazonian Rainforests and Their Richness and Abundance of Terrestrial Arthropods on the Edge of Extinction: Abiotic–Biotic Players in the Critical Zone
Table 4.1 Selected major taxonomic monographs and books published since 1960 for Neotropical insect groups.
Table 4.2 Recent studies on the relationships between insect diversity, host specialization, and tropical forest communities.
Table 4.3 Arthropod abundances in the Piraña (Onkone Gare) 1994–96 canopy samples.
Table 4.4 Beetle guilds.
Chapter 5: Insect Biodiversity in the Afrotropical Region
Table 5.1 Major entomological collections in the Afrotropical region (based on Miller and Rogo 2001).
Table 5.2 Some major entomological collections of Afrotropical insects outside Africa (based on Miller and Rogo 2001).
Chapter 7: Insect Biodiversity in the Palearctic Region
Table 7.1 Ten higher plant families harboring the greatest numbers of weevil species in the subfamily Ceutorhynchinae in the Palearctic and Nearctic regions, and most important in human diet in temperate regions.
Table 7.2 Biodiversity of major insect groups in the Palearctic Region; more details are available in the chapter by Konstantinov et al. (2009).
Table 7.3 Distribution of Curculionoidea across six types of desert plant communities in Trans-Altai Gobi, Mongolia.
Table 7.4 Host plants of Bruchela (Coleoptera: Anthribidae: Urodontinae) in European Russia, Caucasus, and neighboring territories of northeastern Turkey, and weevils (Curculionidae) of the subfamilies Ceutorhynchinae and Baridinae associated with them (modified from Korotyaev 2012).
Table 7.5 Trees, bushes, and semishrubs most preferred as host plants by Lepidoptera in St Petersburg, Russia (modified from Lvovsky 1994).
Table 7.6 Distribution of Tenebrionidae across six types of desert plant community in Trans-Altai Gobi, Mongolia.
Table 7.7 Number of species of Coleoptera in the Trans-Altai Gobi and Central Sahara.
Chapter 8: Biodiversity of Aquatic Insects
Table 8.1 Major orders (and Diptera families) of aquatic insects, with estimates of the known number of species.
Chapter 9: Biodiversity of Diptera
Table 9.1 Families of Diptera and numbers of described species in the world. Family classification and species richness, based on Pape et al. (2011).
Chapter 10: Biodiversity of Heteroptera
Table 10.1 Summary of the known number of heteropteran genera and species by family and infraorder for the Australian*, Nearctic†, and Palearctic‡ regions and the world§. Taxa are arranged phylogenetically by infraorder and alphabetically by family, with the superfamily noted in parentheses for each.
Chapter 11: Biodiversity of Coleoptera
Table 11.1 Extant families of Coleoptera, with the estimated number of described extant world genera and species.
Table 11.2 Coleoptera families represented by extinct taxa only, with number of described genera and species (from Ślipiński et al. 2011).
Table 11.3 Pest Coleoptera species of high economic concern, based on current CABI, USDA-APHIS, Japan-MAFF, NAPIS, CFIA, and EPPO (A1 and A2) lists.
Table 11.4 Estimated number of Coleoptera species for North America and Canada, with the associated number of DNA-barcoding BINs and the calculated percent regional barcoding coverage.
Table 11.5 Number of Coleoptera species on the IUCN (2015) Red List of Threatened Species, by family.
Chapter 12: Biodiversity of Hymenoptera
Table 12.1 Numbers of described species of extant Hymenoptera, listed by superfamily and family.
Table 12.2 Numbers of described species of extinct Hymenoptera (many in families that are still extant), listed by superfamily and family.
Chapter 13: Diversity and Significance of Lepidoptera: A Phylogenetic Perspective
Table 13.1 Classification of the Lepidoptera.
Chapter 17: DNA Barcodes and Insect Biodiversity
Table 17.1 DNA barcodes and insect biodiversity.
Chapter 19: Parasitoid Biodiversity and Insect Pest Management
Table 19.1 Described and estimated species of parasitoids
Chapter 21: Adventive (Non-Native) Insects and the Consequences for Science and Society of Species that Become Invasive
Table 21.1 Some key terms as used in this chapter.
Table 21.2 Vectors and examples of insects moved by transport-related conveyances.
Table 21.3 Vectors and examples of insects that are moved in agriculture and horticulture.
Table 21.4 Vectors and examples of insects that are moved in association with forestry and forest products.
Table 21.5 The adventive insect fauna of selected geographic areas.
Table 21.6 Some economic losses from invasive insects.
Chapter 22: Biodiversity of Blood-sucking Flies: Implications for Humanity
Table 22.1 World biodiversity of extant, described hematophagous flies that take blood from vertebrates, followed by the number of fly-borne diseases. Family classification follows that of Pape et al. (2011).
Table 22.2 Hematophagous fly-borne diseases of humans and domestic animals of the world; dipteran families and diseases within each family are listed alphabetically.
Insect Biodiversity
Science and Society
Volume I
Edited by
Robert G. Foottit
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Ottawa
Ontario
Canada
Peter H. Adler
Clemson University
Clemson
South Carolina
USA
This edition first published 2017 © 2017 John Wiley & Sons
First edition published 2009 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for.
ISBN: 9781118945537
Cover Design: Wiley