Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Preface
Chapter 1: Surface Modification of Natural Fibers for Reinforced Polymer Composites
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Modifications of Natural Fibers
1.3 Composites
1.4 Properties Evaluation
1.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 2: Factors Influencing Adhesion of Submicrometer Thin Metal Films
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Experimental Details
2.3 Results and Discussion
2.4 Summary
References
Chapter 3: Surface Treatments to Modulate Bioadhesion
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Various Surface Treatments
3.3 Prospects
3.4 Summary
References
Chapter 4: Hot-Melt Adhesives from Renewable Resources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Potential Renewable Base Polymers
4.3 Lactic Acid Based Polymers as Hot-Melt Adhesives
4.4 Soy Protein Based Polymers as Hot-Melt Adhesives
4.5 Bio-Based Polyamides as Hot-Melt Adhesives
4.6 Starch Based Polymers as Hot-Melt Adhesives
4.7 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Relevance of Adhesion in Particulate/Fibre-Polymer Composites and Particle Coated Fibre Yarns
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Theory of Interaction
5.3 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Study and Analysis of Damages in Functionally Graded Adhesively Bonded Joints of Laminated FRP Composites
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Damage Analysis of Adhesively Bonded Laminated Composite Joints
6.3 Effect of Adhesive Property on Damages in Adhesively Bonded Joints
6.4 Effect of Functionally Graded Adhesives on Damages in Adhesively Bonded Joints
6.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Surface Modification Strategies for Fabrication of Nano-Biodevices
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Interfacial Interactions for Proper Functioning of Nano-biodevices
7.3 Strategies for Surface Modification of Polymers in Nano-biodevices
7.4 Benefits of Surface Modifications to Nano-Biodevices
7.5 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Effects of Particulates on Contact Angles and Adhesion of a Droplet
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theoretical Background of Contact Angles and Adhesion of a Droplet
8.3 Effects of Particulates on Static Contact Angles
8.4 Effects of Particulates on Droplet Pinning
8.5 Effects of Particulates on Droplet Motion
8.6 Summary
8.7 Prospects
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 9: Thermal Stresses in Adhesively Bonded Joints/Patches and Their Modeling
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Thermal Stresses
9.3 Thermal Residual Stresses
9.4 Viscoelastic Analyses
9.5 Fracture and Fatigue
9.6 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Ways to Mitigate Thermal Stresses in Adhesively Bonded Joints/Patches
10.1 Introduction
10.2 CFRP Strengthened Beams and Plates
10.3 Weld-Bonded Joints, Cutting Tools
10.4 Adhesive Joints Under Cryogenic Temperatures
10.5 Low and High-Temperature Adhesives
10.6 Fillers and Electrically-conductive Adhesives
10.7 Microelectronics, Optics and Nuclear Applications
10.8 Dental Applications
10.9 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Laser-Assisted Electroless Metallization of Polymer Materials
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Application of Lasers in the Metallization of Polymer Materials
11.3 Modification of Polymer Composite Materials
11.4 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 12: Adhesion Measurement of Coatings on Biodevices/Implants
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mechanical Test Methods of Adhesion Measurement
12.3 Summary and Remarks
References
Chapter 13: Cyanoacrylate Adhesives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Synthesis and Processing
13.3 Applications
13.4 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Promotion of Adhesion of Green Flame Retardant Coatings onto Polyolefins by Depositing Ultra-Thin Plasma Polymer Films
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Role of Adhesion in the Use of Thick Fire-Retardant Coatings
14.3 Strategies for Adhesion Promotion of Flame-Retardant Coatings
14.4 Plasma Polymerization
14.5 Adhesion Improvement by Plasma Polymer Layers
14.6 Results of Adhesion Improvement Using Adhesion-Promoting Plasma Polymers
14.7 Flame Retardancy Tests
14.8 Thermal Behavior
14.9 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
Index
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Overview of natural fibers.
Figure 1.2 Photographs of some natural fibers.
Figure 1.3 Structure of cellulose.
Figure 1.4 Structure of hemicellulose.
Figure 1.5 Structure of lignin.
Figure 1.6 Possible types of oxidized groups in cellulose.
Figure 1.7 Effect of oxidizing agents on cellulose.
Figure 1.8 Possible free radicals formation by irradiation of cellulose.
Figure 1.9 Free radicals formation by chain scission of cellulose.
Figure 1.10 Additional modes of free radicals generation.
Figure 1.11 Possible grafting reaction on cellulose in an NF.
Figure 1.12 Free radical attachment during grafting reaction on cellulose in NF.
Figure 1.13 Possible mechanism of natural fiber with maleic anhydride for compatibilization.
Figure 1.14 SEM micrographs of Lantana-Camara fibers (a) Untreated, (b) Acetone treated, (c) Alkali treated and (d) Benzoyl chloride treated.
Figure 1.15 FTIR spectra of Lantana-Camara fiber before and after chemical modifications.
Figure 1.16 SEM micrographs of various composites: (a) TD, (b) TD40, (c) TDM3 and (d) TDG2 (For description of composites, see Tables 1.7–1.9).
Figure 1.17 Water absorption of various composites: Seaweed composite (SwC), Ricestraw composite (RsC), Hybrid composite (HC) and gamma-irradiated hybrid composite (GHC).
Figure 1.18 Fiber pullout and breakage in vinylester composites reinforced with 23 vol% untreated jute fibers.
Figure 1.19 Matrix cracking and debonding of vinylester composites reinforced with 23 vol% 2 h alkali treated jute fibers.
Figure 1.20 Transverse fracture of vinylester composites reinforced with 23 vol% 8 h alkali treated jute fibers.
Figure 1.21 Effect of alkali treatment on tensile strength (TS) and flexural strength (FS) of coir-polyester composite.
Figure 1.22 Scheme of sulfonation reaction between lignin and sodium sulfite.
Figure 1.23 Scheme of acetylation reaction of cellulose.
Figure 1.24 Infrared spectra of the coir fibers before and after chemical treatment.
Figure 1.25 (a) Untreated sisal fiber (b) and alkali treated sisal fiber.
Figure 1.26 (a) Untreated hemp fiber and (b) alkali treated hemp fiber.
Figure 1.27 (a) Untreated jute fiber and (b) alkali treated jute fiber.
Figure 1.28 (a) Untreated kapok fibre and (b) alkali treated kapok fiber.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Industrial equipment (PVD Varian S-Gun).
Figure 2.2 Deposition chamber.
Figure 2.3 Schematic and micrographic representation of the mean critical load determination using the Weibull statistical method. Micrographs of the scratches of an Al film on XC 70 steel substrates. (a) Stylus load: 5 g; failure probability 35%; (b) stylus load: 20 g; failure probability 65%; (c) stylus load: 25 g; failure probability 90%.
Figure 2.4 Weibull diagram of an Al film on an XC 70 steel substrate. (a) Without bias; (b) with a bias voltage of the substrate. Q 0 is a normalizing factor, m is the curve slope, and L represents the total length of the area tested [9].
Figure 2.5 Mean critical load vs. thickness of gold film based on two techniques: constant load mode (CLM) and increasing load mode (ILM).
Figure 2.6 Scanning electron micrographs of scratch tracks obtained by scribing an Al coating on an XC 70 steel substrate. (a) Without bias; (b) with a bias voltage of –200 V on the substrate.
Figure 2.7 Mean critical load as a function of Al deposition time on XC 70 steel substrates: (a) non-biased; (b) –200 V biased.
Figure 2.8 Scanning electron micrographs showing the surfaces of two aluminum films: (a) non-biased; (b) –200 V biased.
Figure 2.9 Scanning electron micrographs of the morphologies of three alumina substrates: untreated (a), ion bombardment etching time of 30 min (b) and etching time of 60 min (c).
Figure 2.10 Example of an Abbott curve. Roughness and contact surface of the substrate (see Figure 2.9c): alumina surface; ion bombardment etching time of 60 min. In this case, the coating-substrate contact surface area is R 3 = 1.2%.
Figure 2.11 Variation of peak-to-peak intensity ratio of nitrogen and aluminum lines as a function of the sputter time in the Auger spectrometer.
Figure 2.12 Scanning electron micrographs of scratch tracks obtained by scribing a copper film on a chemically etched nickel substrate. The chemical etching was performed in a nitric acid bath (solution of 30% by volume) at 80 °C for 30 s. The stylus loads were: (a) 15 g and (b), (c) 19 g.
Figure 2.13 Effects of etching time on the morphology and roughness of nickel substrates. Chemical etching was performed at room temperature in a 30% nitric acid bath with an admixture of nickel sulphate (1 g/l). The etching times were (a) 1 min, (b) 5 min, (c) 10 min and (d) 20 min.
Figure 2.14a High mean free path l ; low stress σ ; low Rc ; high conductivity λ ; good adhesion (high Q ).
Figure 2.14b Low mean free path l ; high stress σ ; high Rc ; low conductivity λ ; poor adhesion (low Q ).
Figure 2.15 Heat flux sensor composed of a polyimide substrate coated with 8 thin film RTDs. Electrical pattern of one thermo-element. Case of a copper film on a polyimide substrate.
Figure 2.16 Variation of the relative electrical resistance as a function of temperature (T ), argon pressure (P ) and deposition time (td ). T 0 : reference temperature (°C); R 0 : electrical resistance of film at reference temperature T 0 (Ω).
Figure 2.17 Correlation between heat transfer and adhesion (mean critical load, Q ): variation of 1/Rc as a function of Q . Cu/alumina samples: the Cu films were deposited at (a) P 1 = 0.15 Pa, (b) P 2 = 0.24 Pa and (c) P 3 = 0.55 Pa.
Figure 2.18 Narrow spectra of the Cu 2p line in the interfacial region of Cu/alumina samples by successively removing the copper layers (curves a–d). The Cu films were deposited at (a) 0.15 and (b) 0.55 Pa.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Diagram showing the relationships between the main parameters of surface treatments and the manipulation of biological adhesion.
Figure 3.2 Typical examples of laser surface engineering for (a) CO2 laser melting of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and (b) UV laser micro-machining of nylon 6,6.
Figure 3.3 SEM images of ns laser surface processing of stainless steel with laser fluences of (a) 25 Jcm–2 , (b) 33 Jcm–2 , (c) 40 Jcm–2 and (d) 48 Jcm–2 all with a scanned line separation of 50 μm. Re-printed from [63].
Figure 3.4 SEM images of femtosecond laser periodic high spatial frequency ripples using a fs laser. Re-printed from [68].
Figure 3.5 Silicon nano-structures formed using nano-imprint lithography and metal-catalyzed electroless etching at etch durations of (a) 30 s, (b) 60 s and (c) 180 s. Re-printed from [91].
Figure 3.6 A typical example of micro-contact printing to produce pyramidal shapes for use in protein patterning. Re-printed from [122].
Figure 3.7 SEM images of (a) as-received and (b) plasma surface treated boron nitride nanotubes. Re-printed from [144].
Figure 3.8 Typical effects on surface topography following ion beam and electron beam processing. Re-printed from [168].
Figure 3.9 Focused ion beam producing wrinkle patterns on polymer surfaces. Re-printed from [171]. Copyright (2007) National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.
Figure 3.10 Typical SEM images and surface profilometry of black silicon using reactive-ion beam etching. Re-printed from [176].
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Potential benefits of hot-melt adhesives from renewable resources [5].
Figure 4.2 Possible replacements of petroleum based products by renewable materials [5].
Figure 4.3 Structures of fatty acids used in hot-melt adhesive formulations [54].
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of undesirable transport processes and their control through modification of interphase [13].
Figure 5.2 Schematic representation of inter-diffusion between adhesive and substrate [35].
Figure 5.3 (a) Mechanical interlocking caused by hills, valleys, pores and crevices, and (b) Adsorption (contact adhesion) by van der Waals interactions [37].
Figure 5.4 A schematic drawing of the single fragmentation test (The fibre continues to fracture into shorter lengths as the load increases, until the fragment length becomes too short to break) [48].
Figure 5.5 (a) General scheme of multilayer interphase around a particle embedded in a polymer phase [56] (b) Interphase of a glass fibre reinforced composite during debonding [57].
Figure 5.6 Different types of natural and synthetic fibres [60].
Figure 5.7 Types of surface modification techniques [69].
Figure 5.8 Interface layer (a) initial without curing agent (b) final with curing agent [73].
Figure 5.9 Schematic representation of APTES surface treatment of fibre yarns and the preparation of conductive coating with epoxy binder and graphene particles.
Figure 5.10 Instrument setup for the measurement of electrical conductivity of yarns.
Figure 5.11 Electrical conductivity of graphene coated glass fibres and PP yarn samples with epoxy as binder.
Figure 5.12 Electrical conductivity of graphene coated glass fibres and PP yarn samples with starch as binder.
Figure 5.13 (a) SEM image of glass fibre yarn coated with G-epoxy and (b) particle size distribution of G used.
Figure 5.14 XPS widescan spectrum, and C 1s and O 1s narrow scan spectra of G.
Figure 5.15 Six types of hybrids prepared.
Figure 5.16 SEM images of polymers and hybrid composites.
Figure 5.17 (a) Electrical conductivity and (b) percentage increase of UTS in all six hybrid nanocomposites calculated from their neat polymers and (c) UTS of neat polymers.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 An overview of various applications that can be realized with the interaction of nanotechnology and molecular biology [1].
Figure 7.2 (a) SEM image of a silicon nanowire fabricated through nanotechnology approaches (b) schematic of surface functionalization that leads to a change in conductivity [3].
Figure 7.3 (a) Schematic of a nano-biodevice for monitoring single cells (b) array of MOS transistors with multiple neurons growing on top of these transistors [7].
Figure 7.4 Schematic to understand the nano-biodevice concept.
Figure 7.5 (a) Schematic for Langmuir monolayer obtained at the water-air interface. (b) (1), (2) and (3) Langmuir-Blodgett films obtained depending on substrate and molecules used for fabrication of a nano-biodevice.
Figure 7.6 Schematic of the released counter/co- ions throughout protein adsorption. In each protein kept at pH>pI (Isoelectric point of the protein) the protein carries a counterion cloud constituted of N+ negative counter-ions and N– positive counterions. As the protein gets impregnated within the polymer brush it releases N+ positive counterions of the polymeric brush and its own N+ negative counterions and carries along with itself N– positive counter-ions, thus leading to a net release of ΔN = 2N+ – N– ions(>0).
Figure 7.7 Schematic showing the reaction occurring during silanization of a surface. In this reaction, a thio-terminal silane film is attached via hydroxyl groups of the silica. MTS is used for the replacement of OH by NH3 group. This is followed by a bifunctional crosslinker (such as GMBS, a heterobifunctional crosslinker), allowing amide binding to the terminal amino group.
Figure 7.8 Schematic representation of the micro-contact printing (μCP) technique. The method shows the procedure for creating a stamp of suitable structural dimensions. (a) Liquid polymer is cast on the structured master surface. (b) Shows the stamp during curing, (c) shows the elastomeric stamp after curing, (d) the stamp is inked with the solution containing the (bio) molecules to be printed. (e) represents transfer of biomolecules by printing onto the substrate. (f) represents the removal of the stamp. (g) depicts the surface being overflown with the passivating molecular solution.
Figure 7.9 Linking approaches of macromolecules to solid supports using biotin-strept (avidin) [135].
Figure 7.10 Schematic of the reaction of an oligonucleotide (DNA-1) containing a 3-terminal aldehyde group with an oligonucleotide (DNA-2) containing a 5-terminal hydrazine group to develop DNA-DNA conjugation.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 (a) Schematic of a droplet in equilibrium state on an ideally smooth surface. (b) Schematic of a droplet about to recede on a smooth surface. Due to the pinning of the droplet boundary, the contact angle of the droplet keeps decreasing from the initial static contact angle (θi ), until the receding contact angle (θr ) is reached. (c) Schematic of a droplet about to slide on an inclined smooth surface. With the increase of gravitational force acting on the droplet by increasing the tilting angle of the substrate, the contact angles at the front and rear sides of the droplet keep increasing and decreasing, respectively, until the advancing (maximum) and receding (minimum) contact angles are reached. The tilting (roll-off or sliding) angle of a droplet is determined when both the front and rear sides of the droplet boundaries depin.
Figure 8.2 Schematic diagram of the mechanisms of particulates affecting the initial static contact angle of a particle-laden droplet on a solid surface.
Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram of the mechanisms of particulates affecting the pinning of a particle-laden droplet boundary on a solid surface.
Figure 8.4 (a) Phase diagram for nanoparticle deposits after particle-laden droplets have evaporated on a solid surface. Vrad , VMa , and VDLVO+ represent the radial flow velocity scale, Marangoni velocity scale, and the velocity scale induced by attractive DLVO force, respectively. Cases A, B, and E indicate uniform nanoparticle deposits when the DLVO force dominates. Case C represents coffee-ring shaped deposits when the radial flow dominates. Case D represents deposits aggregated in the middle of droplets when Marangoni flow dominates. Outer and inner lines shown in insets D and E represent the initial droplet profile and nanoparticle deposits profile, respectively. Mechanisms forming (b) coffee-ring shaped deposits by radial flow, (c) uniform deposits by DLVO attractive force, and (d) centrally aggregated deposits by Marangoni flow. (Reprinted with permission from R. Bhardwaj, X. Fang, P. Somasundaran and D. Attinger, Self-Assembly of Colloidal Particles from Evaporating Droplets: Role of DLVO Interactions and Proposition of a Phase Diagram. Langmuir 26 , 7833–7842(2010). Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society)
Figure 8.5 Schematic of the structural disjoining pressure due to the ordering of nanoparticles (a) along the droplet boundary within a particle-laden droplet on a hydrophilic surface, and (b) along the wedge of liquid containing nanoparticles formed near a gas bubble on a hydrophilic surface.
Figure 8.6 Schematic of stick-slip behavior of droplet contact line of (a) a pure water droplet and (b) a droplet containing particulates. The lower parts of Figure 8.6 are top views of the stick-slip behavior, in which the dashed lines represent the motion of pure droplet contact line and the solid lines represent the deposits of particulates left after receding of droplet contact line.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Deflection of a bi-metal strip while uniformly heated [4].
Figure 9.2 An adhesively bonded assembly with identical adherends subjected to bending [12].
Figure 9.3 Isochromatic fringe patterns for different scarf angles, θ [18].
Figure 9.4 Transient dark-field isochromatics recorded in the time steps (a) 2, (b) 4, (c) 6, (d) 8, (e) 10 and (f) 12 minutes for an aluminium-PSM-1 bi-material specimen kept on a hot plate at 60 °C for the rectangular tile (top) [23].
Figure 9.5 (a) Geometrical configuration of Al/epoxy joint, (b) force equilibrium in the middle layer of heterogeneous bonded structure, (c) isochromatic patterns of the heterogeneous bonded Al/epoxy double lap joint under different loads [24].
Figure 9.6 Failure index k of the adhesively-bonded joint with an adhesive thickness of (a) 0.05 mm, (b) 0.1 mm, (c) 0.5 mm, (d) 1.0 mm [28].
Figure 9.7 Failure loads of (a) lap joints tested in tension, (b) T-joints tested with a radius of 2 mm, (c) Direct load at failure vs. bending moment for lap joints and T-joints at –40, +20 and +90 °C [41].
Figure 9.8 Finite element model and radial stress distributions (fibre centre): (a) thermal residual stresses due to cooling down from 24 °C to –55 °C, (b) first stresses due to shear load, (c) maximum tensile stresses at fibre interface, (d) crack initiation, (e) crack propagation and increase of compressive stresses at the interface, (f) transfer of compressive stresses is disturbed due to highly yielded matrix [45].
Figure 9.9 The observed failure mechanisms as the butt joint specimens are cooled from the cure temperature to the room temperature: (a) failure initiation from interface corners and growth along the interfaces before the crack deflection into the adhesive, (b) failure initiation from interface corners and growth along the interfaces and within the adhesive layer before the crack deflection into the adhesive, (c) failure initiation away from the interface corners and growth within the adhesive [55].
Figure 9.10 Optical determination of bi-material strip curvature [58].
Figure 9.11 Some experimental methods for determining the effect of residual stresses on the thermoelastic energy release rate for mode I crack growth (GI ) in adhesive double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens: (a) measure the curvature of an unbalanced, two-layer, adhesive and adherend strip, measure initial arm curvature (b) when the residual stress curvature Kres > 0, (c) when Kres < 0, (d) preparation of symmetric specimens [72].
Figure 9.12 (a) Al-CFRP [0]8 double lap joint and failure path orientations for Al-CFRP [0]8 double lap joint specimens tested at different temperatures: (b) 25 °C, (c ) 55 °C, (d ) 65 °C [87].
Figure 9.13 Failure modes in CFRP-steel bonded joints: (a) 25 °C, (b) 100 °C, (c) 175 °C, (d) sideview (50 °C) [89].
Figure 9.14 Typical failed surfaces on the steel adherend of (a) co-cured single lap and (b) co-cured double lap joint specimens having a composite adherend with the stacking sequence {[±θ ]4s }s and [±θ ]4s (θ = 0, 15, 30, 45°) [92].
Figure 9.15 (a) Typical moisture-dependent stress-strain curves for a thick adhesive dogbone specimen (mwtt : the moisture content), (b) deformation plots of bi-material curved beams (experimental), (c) deformation plots of bi-material curved beam for a range of temperature drops (finite element analysis) [95].
Figure 9.16 Static failure process of aged monolithic single lap joint: (a) selected points in load-displacement curve, (b) images of the damage in the adhesive layer [97].
Figure 9.17 Static failure process of laminated doubler in bending: (a) showing points of load and corresponding backface strain where the images were taken, (b) images of the damage in the adhesive layer [97].
Figure 9.18 Strain versus time for FM® 73 adhesive for step loading at constant temperature [104, 105].
Figure 9.19 Predicted and measured curvatures of diamond bonded to ZnS slow heated to (a) 45 °C, (b) 55 °C and (c) 65 °C and returned to room temperature [108].
Figure 9.20 Stress relaxation time-temperature superposition master curves and shift factors: (a) epoxy with extremely high room temperature viscosity, (b) polyurethane and (c) epoxy with relatively low room temperature viscosity [115].
Figure 9.21 Dissimilar bonded wedges, and SEM micrograph of the interface corner of a debonded 70° wedge specimen (200×) [118, 119].
Figure 9.22 A structure reinforced by bonded straps and four possible damage modes [125].
Figure 9.23 Final predicted and experimental disbond shapes [126].
Figure 9.24 Isochromatic patterns including residual fringes (a) on the well-bonded interface and (b) on the partially bonded interface of a heterogeneous bonding structure under different load levels [130].
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 A retrofitted steel beam reinforced with a bonded CFRP plate [15].
Figure 10.2 Failure modes along (a) interface with organic resin, (b) interface with inorganic resin for structural retrofit using CFRP composites on thermal exposures of 25 and 200 °C [22].
Figure 10.3 (a) A weld-bonded joint, (b) temperature distribution, and (c) minor principal stress variation [27].
Figure 10.4 Measuring the adhesive strength via (a ) the double cantilever beam test (b ) at the cryogenic temperatures, and (c ) adhesive peel strength with respect to step cure cycle at the room (25 °C) and cryogenic temperatures (–150 °C) [40].
Figure 10.5 Fracture surfaces of CFRP/adhesive/CFRP DCB specimens at (a) room temperature (296 K); (b) low temperature (223 K) interfacial failure; (c) low temperature (223 K) cohesive failure; and (d) cryogenic temperature (77 K) [44].
Figure 10.6 Load-displacement curves obtained from DCB tests on CFRP/adhesive/CFRP specimens at (a) room temperature (296 K), (b) low temperature (223 K), and (c) cryogenic temperature (77 K) [44].
Figure 10.7 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar setup for dynamic loading of lap joint (top), and fracture surfaces (bottom) indicating predominantly cohesive failure of adhesive from dynamic tests at (a) 25 °C and (b) 100 °C [48].
Figure 10.8 Shear stress distributions in mixed-modulus adhesively bonded joints: (a) single ductile adhesive, (b) mixed-modulus elastic adhesives, (c) mixed-modulus elastic and plastic adhesives, and (d) mixed-modulus insufficient low-modulus adhesive [53].
Figure 10.9 Application of a high-temperature adhesive (HTA) for lower stresses in the middle of the overlap and a low-temperature adhesive (LTA) to stiffen the ends of the overlap [55].
Figure 10.10 Photoelastic and analytical fringe patterns in adhesive joints including fillers when the mean temperature difference between the adhesive and the surrounding air is approximately 50 °C [63].
Figure 10.11 Effects of the curing temperature on the tensile properties of the 3M Scotch-Weld epoxy adhesive DP460 without/with alumina filler [67, 68].
Figure 10.12 ACF process: (a) ACF placement and lamination on the substrate (pre-bonding), (b) peeling off the cover film from ACF, (c) alignment between the integrated circuit (IC) and substrate, (d) final bonding with temperature and pressure [73].
Figure 10.13 SEM micrographs showing the ACF interconnection through conductive particles (a) as-bonded at 200 °C, 80 N, 10 s, and after reflow with the peak temperature at (b) 210 °C, (c) 230 °C and (d) 260 °C [73].
Figure 10.14 Representative fracture surfaces corresponding to single-lap joints tested at (a) 28 °C, (b) 50 °C and (c) 90 °C, and 1, 10 and 100 mm/min crosshead speeds [75].
Figure 10.15 (a) A multichip module package construction without an external heat sink, and (b) the second-level solder joint failure after thermal cycling test [85].
Figure 10.16 3D model of silver filled thermally conductive adhesive (left), and the temporal variations of contact pressure between filler particles for different temperatures (right) [93].
Figure 10.17 Schematics of three types of package cracks (a ) Type I, (b ) Type II, (c ) Type III [96].
Fgiure 10.18 A Lead-on-Chip package structure, Thermal cycling profile (upper left), Scanning electron micrographs showing the edge regions of the devices after 1000 thermal cycles: (a) with no tape, and (b) with single-sided adhesive tape, and (c) with double-sided adhesive tape [97].
Figure 10.19 (a) Delamination in a test sample with a liquid crystal polymer substrate, (b) cracking of a thin chip in a test sample with the FR-4 composite substrate, and (c) cracking in a conductive particle [104].
Figure 10.20 (a) Lateral flow of non-conductive adhesive between the chip and substrate, (b) the finite element model for the post-bonding stress analysis, and (c) the von Mises stress distributions (MPa) for compression force of (left) 5 N, and (right) 18 N (bonding temperature 100 °C) [105].
Figure 10.21 Stress concentration patterns of (a) Optibond-dentin, (b) Scotchbond MP-dentin, (c) Tenure-dentin, (d) Z100/Scotchbond MP/dentin, (e) Z100/Clearfil Protect Liner/Scotchbond MP/dentin specimens with 2 W of laser power density, and (f) Standard model: the resin adhesive layer (blue), the hybrid layer (purple), and dentin (red) [113].
Figure 10.22 (a) Examples of how the C-factor changes with different preparation designs and (b) effect of time and thermal cycling (abscissa) on the mean shear bond strength (ordinate) of specimens with low and high C-factors [117].
Figure 10.23 Temperature distributions in the tooth structure with a restoration exposed to the environmental temperature of (a) 55 °C, (b) 5 °C, and reduced stress distributions for (c) 400 N, 55 °C, (d) 400 N, 5 °C [121].
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Four types of treatments using laser radiation, depending on the site of interaction between the molecules: (a) in gaseous medium, (b) in solution, (c) in thin surface layer, or (d) in the entire volume of the polymer.
Figure 11.2 Laser-induced surface texturing of PBT obtained using a mask made of boron powder (left- front view; right – side view) [21].
Figure 11.3 A simplified experimental set-up for modification with KrF and XeCl excimer lasers in a solution and for palladium incorporation, according to [37].
Figure 11.4 A diagram showing metallization in a solution with the use of laser radiation, according to [40, 41].
Figure 11.5 A diagram showing laser modification with formation of metal agglomerates.
Figure 11.6 The process of fabricating test samples.
Figure 11.7 The influence of: (a) sample composition; and the number of laser pulses from 5 to 500 with fluence at: (b) 120 mJ/cm2 and (c) 300 mJ/cm2 on electroless metallization.
Figure 11.8 FTIR spectra of the Cu(acac)2 and CuO powders mixed in 1:1 ratio before and after annealing.
Figure 11.9 Chemical reactions occurring due to dissociation of Cu(acac)2 .
Figure 11.10 SEM images of the surfaces of polyamide composites: (a) non-irradiated and (b) irradiated with laser.
Figure 11.11 SEM image of a cross section of laser-irradiated polyamide composite.
Figure 11.12 Polyamide composite irradiated with (a) 50; (b) 500 laser pulses with Ej = 120 mJ/cm2 (the thickness of the irradiated layers is marked and described in yellow).
Figure 11.13 SEM images of surface cones before and after etching with FeCl3 .
Figure 11.14 Photographs of laser-irradiated composites subjected to electroless metallization: (a) composite A, (b) composite B, and (c) composite C.
Figure 11.15 Number (N) of photoelectrons versus their binding energy (EB ) for composites A, B and C.
Figure 11.16 Number (N) of photoelectrons versus their binding energy (EB ) for composites A, B and C.
Figure 11.17 Images of the surfaces of composites: (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, irradiated with 500 laser pulses with Ej = 300 mJ/cm2 .
Figure 11.18 Diagram showing structural transformation along with SEM images illustrating these changes in composite B: (a) non-irradiated, and irradiated with (b) 50 and (c) 500 laser pulses with Ej = 120 mJ/cm2 .
Figure 11.19 SEM images of fibers in composites (a) B, and (b) C (irradiated with 500 laser pulses), (c) C irradiated with 2000 laser pulses (Ej = 300 mJ/cm2 ).
Figure 11.20 SEM images of composite A metallized for 30 min (a, b, c), 60 min (d, e, f), 90 min (g, h, i), and 120 min (j, k, l).
Figure 11.21 A system for measuring adhesion strength: 1 – polymer composite substrate, 2 – copper layer, 3 – stamp, 4 – adhesive.
Figure 11.22 Photographs of detached copper layers from polyamide composites: (a) without glass fibers (N = 50, E=40 mJ/cm2 ), (b) without glass fibers (N = 50, E. = 120 mJ/cm2 ), (c) with glass fibers (N = 50, Ej =40 mJ/cm2 ), (d) with glass fibers (N = 50, E. = 120 mJ/cm2 ).
Figure 11.23 Optical microscope images of composites: (a) A, (b) B, and (c) C (N = 500, E. = 300 mJ/cm2 ).
Figure 11.24 Photographs of irradiated composites after electroless metallization.
Figure 11.25 SEM images of the surfaces of the composites tested, including laser-irradiated and non-irradiated areas – the upper and lower panels of each SEM image, respectively.
Figure 11.26 SEM image of a fiber in composite C3 with indicated points selected for energy-dispersive X-ray analysis.
Figure 11.27 Photographs taken after electroless metallization of samples (a) U0, U1, U2, U3; (b) A0, A1, A2, A3.
Figure 11.28 SEM images of samples U0, U1, U3 and A0, A1, A3.
Figure 11.29 Photographs of laser-irradiated polyurethane composite samples which underwent electroless metallization.
Figure 11.30 Thermogravimetric curves for Cu(OH)2 and Cu(acac)2 .
Figure 11.31 SEM images of laser irradiated polyurethane composite samples.
Figure 11.32 Percentage of copper in the SL of samples A and B irradiated with different numbers of laser pulses, N.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Schematic of peel test.
Figure 12.2 Schematic of scribe test.
Figure 12.3 Schematic of pull-off (tensile) test.
Figure 12.4 Schematic of single-lap shear test.
Figure 12.5 Schematic of blister test.
Figure 12.6 Schematics of the three types of interface delamination on indentation of the coating [74].
Figure 12.7 Schematic of small-punch test.
Figure 12.8 Schematic of four-point bending test setup.
Figure 12.9 Load versus displacement plot.
Figure 12.10 A sandwiched Brazilian disk specimen under axial compressive loading.
Figure 12.11 A double-layer double-cantilever beam specimen in mode I loading.
Chapter 13
Scheme 13.1 Anionic polymerization of alkyl 2-cyanoacrylate.
Scheme 13.2 Condensation-depolymerization reaction to produce alkyl 2-cyanoacrylate.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Peel strengths (90°) of 150 nm thermally evaporated copper from plasma-brominated (bromoform plasma) and diol spacer-grafted polypropylene substrates referenced to the contribution of 1 spacer endgroup per 100 C atoms, thus compensating different concentrations of spacers.
Figure 14.2 Types of flame retardant coatings deposited onto polymer substrates.
Figure 14.3 Principle of flame retardancy behavior of polyolefin substrates coated with thin or thick flame-protecting layers.
Figure 14.4 Role of adhesion promoter in fire-retardant coated polyolefin components to avoid early blistering on exposure to flame.
Figure 14.5 Intumescent coating before testing (left) and after fire testing (30 min, right).
Figure 14.6 Char formation on polystyrene surface by antimony trioxide and brominated flame retardant coatings after flaming.
Figure 14.7 Schematic of fire retardancy of polymers.
Figure 14.8 Explanation of why adhesion promoting polymers are used in coating with thick fire-protecting layers.
Figure 14.9 Flame retarding coatings.
Figure 14.10 Differently bonded laminate systems along the interface on exposure to mechanical load.
Figure 14.11 Principle of deposition of thin layers of polymers by plasma polymerization of precursors/monomers carrying functional groups or electrospray ionization deposition of polymers with functional groups.
Figure 14.12 Schematic design of laminates equipped with adhesion-promoting polymer interlayers deposited by plasma polymerization or by electrospray ionization (ESI) deposition with or without oxygen plasma pretreatment.
Figure 14.13 Schematics of layers in polyolefin laminates.
Figure 14.14 Schematics of preparation of flame-retardant silicate layers on the surface of polyolefin substrates.
Figure 14.15 Flame-retardant coating with melamine resin.
Figure 14.16 XPS-C1s peak of HMDSO + 12 O2 (ppSiO2 ) and 100% HMDSO after plasma deposition.
Figure 14.17 Deposition rates of hexamethyldisiloxane and oxygen in a molar ratio of 1:12 as silica-like layer (ppSiO2 ) and pure hexamethyldisiloxane (ppHMDSO) on exposure to the rf plasma at 10 Pa and 100 W.
Figure 14.18 FTIR-ATR spectra of polystyrene coated with thin layers of HMDSO with and without oxygen addition.
Figure 14.19 Peel strength of flame-resistant coatings from polyolefin laminates.
Figure 14.20 Deposition rates of allyl alcohol (ppAAl) on exposure to the rf plasma at 10 Pa and 100 W.
Figure 14.21 Comparison of failure locus at peeling of melamine resin without and with curing.
Figure 14.22 Flame retardancy test according to DIN 4102-1.
Figure 14.23 TGA curves of thick flame retardant layers coated polyolefins: a) PS, b) PE and c) PP.
Figure 14.24 Proposed mechanism of flame retardancy of cured melamine resin.
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Chemical compositions of various lignocellulosic materials.
Table 1.2 Cellulosic component, polymeric state, derivatives and function.
Table 1.3 Various surface treatment methods for natural fibers.
Table 1.4 Reported work on hybrid composites.
Table 1.5 Mechanical properties of untreated Lantana-Camara fiber-epoxy composite.
Table 1.6 Mechanical properties of treated Lantana-Camara fiber-epoxy composite.
Table 1.7 Relative amount (wt%) of tea dust (TD) as filler and polymer matrix in composites to optimize the filler (TD) content in composites.
Table 1.8 Relative amount (wt %) of GMA-g-PP compatibilizer and polymer matrix in composites to optimize the amount of GMA-g-PP content in composites.
Table 1.9 Relative amount (wt%) of MAH-g-PP compatibilizer and polymer matrix in composites to optimize the amount of MAH-g-PP content in composites.
Table 1.10 Loss of tensile strength (%) of composites on outdoor exposure.
Table 1.11 Mechanical properties of untreated and alkali-treated jute/vinylester composites (S.D.: standard deviation)
Table 1.12 Crystallinity index and first exotherm peak temperature as a function of concentration of alkali treatment (second exotherm peak temperature in brackets).
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Experimental conditions of the coated samples: (A) non-biased; (B) biased.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Summary of the technical aspects for each surface treatment that can be implemented for bioadhesion modulation. Note: μm = micrometer; nm = nanometer.
Table 3.2 Matrix quantifying the industrial/commercial parameters of surface engineering techniques which can be used for the manipulation of biological and microbiological adhesion.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Elemental analysis of G.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Effects of particulate concentration on static contact angles.
Table 8.2 Effects of particulate size on static contact angles.
Table 8.3 Effects of particulates and particulate concentration on droplet boundary pinning on solid substrates
Table 8.4 Effects of flow types within droplets, interactions amongst particulates, between particulates and substrates, and between particulates and liquid-gas interface, on the accumulation of particulates along the droplet boundary
Table 8.5 Effects of particulates and particulate concentration on stick-slip behavior of droplet contact line.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Sample composition.
Table 11.2 Results of the analysis of component peaks in the XPS spectrum, where BE denotes binding energy at peaks maxima.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Physical properties and uses of different alkyl substituted cyanoacrylate esters [5, 8, 28].
Table 13.2 Effect of alkyl group on polymerization reaction rate at 50 °C.
Table 13.3 Bonding efficiency on different substrates [8].
Table 13.4 Heat resistance/high temperature bond strength comparison of allyl and methyl cyanoacrylates [34].
Table 13.5 Bond strengths of a standard industrial grade cyanoacrylate adhesive on primed and non-primed polyolefin substrates [34].
Table 13.6 Bond strengths of light curing cyanoacrylate adhesives on different substrates (ASTM D4501), MPa [52, 54].
Table 13.7 US-FDA approved cyanoacrylate based medical adhesives [58, 59].
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Linear thermal expansion coefficients of different materials.
Table 14.2 Locus of failure at peeling of laminates (PAAl=poly(allyl alcohol).
Table 14.3 Flame test results of thick coatings according to DIN 4102–1 (Wg – water glass, mPMF – melamine resin).
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Scrivener Publishing
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Publishers at Scrivener
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Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives
This edition first published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-40638-9
In 2015 we had brought out the premier volume in this series “Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives” (although we had not called it Volume 1 as we had no idea what the future plans would be) based on 13 articles published in 2014 in the journal Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives (RAA). RAA was initiated in 2013 with the sole purpose of publishing review articles on topics of contemporary interest.
With the ever-increasing amount of research being published it is a Herculean task to be fully conversant with the latest research developments in any field, and the arena of adhesion and adhesives is no exception. Thus topical review articles provide an alternate and a very efficient way to stay abreast of the state-of-the-art of a given subject. Moreover, anybody embarking on a new research area or an individual who just wishes to be knowledgeable about a topic are well advised to start with a good review article on topic of his/her interest.
The success of and the warm reception accorded to the premier volume provided us the impetus to bring out this sequel, designated as Volume 2. The current volume is based on 14 critical, concise, illuminating and thought-provoking review articles (published in 2016 in RAA) written by a coterie of internationally renowned subject matter experts, covering many and varied topics within the broad purview of Adhesion Science and Adhesive Technology.
The rationale for bringing out Volume 2 is the same as was applicable to its predecessor, i.e., the RAA has limited circulation so this set of books should provide broad exposure and wide dissemination of valuable information published in RAA. The chapters in this Volume are arranged in the same order as published originally in RAA. The subjects of these 14 reviews fall into the following general areas.
Surface modification of polymers for a variety of purposes.
Adhesion aspects in reinforced composites
Thin films/coatings and their adhesion measurement
Bioadhesion and bio-implants
Adhesives and adhesive joints
General adhesion aspects
The topics covered include: surface modification of natural fibers for reinforced polymer composites; adhesion of submicrometer thin metals films; surface treatments to modulate bioadhesion; hot-melt adhesives from renewable resources; relevance of adhesion in particulate-polymer composites; analysis of damages in functionally graded adhesively bonded joints; surface modification strategies for fabrication of nano-biodevices; effects of particulates on contact angles and adhesion of a droplet; thermal stresses in adhesively bonded joints and ways to mitigate these; laser-assisted electroless metallization of polymer materials; adhesion measurement of coatings on biodevices /implants; cyanoacrylate adhesives; and adhesion of green flame retardant coatings onto polyolefins.
This book consolidating plentiful information on a number of topics of current interest should be valuable and useful to materials science, nanotechnology, polymers, bonding, biomedical, composites researchers in academia, government research labs and R&D personnel in a host of industries. Yours truly sincerely is sanguine that Volume 2 will receive the same warm welcome as its forerunner by the materials science community in general and the adhesionists in particular.
Now is the pleasant task of thanking those who were instrumental in shaping this book. First I am thankful to the authors of review articles for their enthusiastic support for bringing out Volume 2 as they felt that this was a very useful medium for bringing the information to a wider audience. Also, I should thank Martin Scrivener (publisher) for conceiving the idea of these books and for his steadfast interest in and support for this book project.
Kash Mittal
P.O. Box 1280
Hopewell Jct., NY 12533
E-mail: usharmittal@gmail.com
April 2017