Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

About the Authors

Part I: Design and Analysis

Chapter 1: Flexible Pipes and Limit-States Design
1. 1.1 Introduction
2. 1.2 Applications of Flexible Pipe
3. 1.3 Comparison between Flexible Pipes and Rigid Pipes
4. 1.4 Failure Mode and Design Criteria
5. 1.5 Limit State Design
6. References
Chapter 2: Materials and Aging
1. 2.1 Introduction
2. 2.2 Metallic Material
3. 2.3 Polymer Material
4. 2.4 Aging
5. References
Chapter 3: Ancillary Equipment and End Fitting Design
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Bend Stiffeners and Bellmouths
3. 3.3 Bend Restrictor
4. 3.4 Buoyancy Modules
5. 3.5 Cathodic Protection
6. 3.6 Annulus Venting System
7. 3.7 End Fittings
8. References
Chapter 4: Reliability-Based Design Factors
1. 4.1 Introduction
2. 4.2 Failure Probability
3. 4.3 Safety Factor Based on Reliability
4. 4.4 Design Example
5. References

Part II: Unbonded Flexible Pipes

Chapter 5: Unbonded Flexible Pipe Design
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Applications of Flexible Pipe
3. 5.3 Flexible Pipe System and Components
4. References
Chapter 6: Design and Analyses of Unbonded Flexible Pipe
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Flexible Pipe Guidelines
3. 6.3 Material and Mechanical Properties
4. 6.4 Analytical Solutions in Flexible Pipe Design
5. 6.5 FE Analysis of Unbonded Flexible Pipe
6. References
Chapter 7: Unbonded Flexible Pipe Under Internal Pressure
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Analytical Solution
3. 7.3 FE Analysis
4. 7.4 Results and Discussion
5. 7.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 8: Unbonded Flexible Pipe Under External Pressure
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Finite Element Analysis
3. 8.3 FEM Results and Discussion
4. 8.4 Analytical Solution
5. 8.5 Test Study
6. 8.6 Comparison of Three Methods
7. 8.7 Conclusions
8. References
Chapter 9: Unbonded Flexible Pipe Under Tension
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Tension Load
3. 9.3 Results and Discussion
4. 9.4 Parametric Study
5. 9.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 10: Unbonded Flexible Pipe Under Bending
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Helical Layer within No-Slip Range
3. 10.3 Helical Layer within Slip Range
4. References
Chapter 11: Unbonded Flexible Pipe Under Tension and Internal Pressure
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Analytical Solution
3. 11.3 FE Analysis
4. 11.4 Results and Discussion
5. 11.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 12: Cross-Sectional Design and Case Study for Unbonded Flexible Pipes
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Cross-Sectional Design
3. 12.3 Case Study
4. 12.4 Conclusions
5. References
Chapter 13: Fatigue Analysis of Unbonded Flexible Pipe
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Theoretical Approach
3. 13.3 Case Study
4. 13.4 Conclusions
5. References

Part III: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipes

Chapter 14: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under Internal Pressure
1. 14.1 Introduction
2. 14.2 Applications
3. 14.3 Design and Manufacturing
4. 14.4 Analytical Solution
5. 14.5 FE Analysis
6. 14.6 Results and Discussion
7. 14.7 Conclusions
8. References
Chapter 15: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under External Pressure
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Experimental Tests
3. 15.3 FE Analysis
4. 15.4 Simplified Estimation for Collapse Pressure
5. 15.5 Parametric Study
6. 15.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 16: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under Pure Tension
1. 16.1 Introduction
2. 16.2 Experimental Tests
3. 16.3 FE Analysis
4. 16.4 Comparison and Discussions
5. 16.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 17: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under Bending
1. 17.1 Introduction
2. 17.2 FE Analysis
3. 17.3 Mechanical Behaviors and Discussions
4. 17.4 Conclusions
5. References
Chapter 18: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under Combined Internal Pressure and Tension
1. 18.1 Introduction
2. 18.2 Analytical Solution
3. 18.3 Inner HDPE layer
4. 18.4 Finite Element Analysis
5. 18.5 Results and Discussion
6. 18.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 19: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under Combined Internal Pressure and Bending
1. 19.1 Introduction
2. 19.2 Analytical Solution
3. 19.3 FE Analysis
4. 19.4 Summary
5. References
Chapter 20: Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under Combined Bending and External Pressure
1. 20.1 Introduction
2. 20.2 Experimental Tests
3. 20.3 FE Analysis
4. 20.4 Analysis Results and Discussions
5. 20.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 21: Cross-Sectional Design and Case Study for Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe
1. 21.1 Introduction
2. 21.2 Mechanical Behaviors
3. 21.3 Cross-Sectional Design
4. 21.4 Case Study
5. 21.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 22: Damage Assessment for Steel Reinforced Flexible Pipe
1. 22.1 Introduction
2. 22.2 Damage Analysis of Outer Layer
3. 22.3 Influence of Different Intervals
4. 22.4 Effects of Insufficient Strength in Steel Strip
5. References

Part IV: Bonded Flexible Pipes

Chapter 23: Bonded Flexible Rubber Pipes
1. 23.1 Introduction
2. 23.2 Design and Applications
3. 23.3 Failure Modes
4. 23.4 Integrity Management
5. References
Chapter 24: Nonmetallic Bonded Flexible Pipe Under Internal Pressure
1. 24.1 Introduction
2. 24.2 Experimental Tests
3. 24.3 Analytical Solution
4. 24.4 Finite Element Analysis
5. 24.5 Results and Comparison
6. References
Chapter 25: Nonmetallic Bonded Flexible Pipe Under External Pressure
1. 25.1 Introduction
2. 25.2 Analytical Solution of Collapse
3. 25.3 FE Analysis
4. 25.4 Example of Collapse Analysis
5. 25.5 Sensitivity Analysis
6. References
Chapter 26: Nonmetallic Bonded Flexible Pipe Under Bending
1. 26.1 Introduction
2. 26.2 Analytical Solution
3. 26.3 FE Analysis
4. 26.4 Experiment Test
5. 26.5 Results and Discussion
6. 26.6 Parametric Studies
7. 26.7 Conclusions
8. References
9. Appendix
Chapter 27: Nonmetallic Bonded Flexible Pipe Under Combined Tension and Internal Pressure
1. 27.1 Introduction
2. 27.2 Nonlinear Analytical Solution
3. 27.3 Finite Element Model
4. 27.4 Results and Discussion
5. 27.5 Parametric Study
6. 27.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 28: Nonmetallic Bonded Flexible Pipe Under Combined External Pressure and Bending
1. 28.1 General
2. 28.2 Introduction
3. 28.3 Analytical Solution
4. 28.4 Finite Element Model
5. 28.5 Results and Discussions
6. 28.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 29: Fibre Glass Reinforced Flexible Pipes Under Internal Pressure
1. 29.1 Introduction
2. 29.2 Analytical Solution
3. 29.3 Finite Element Analysis
4. 29.4 Results and Discussions
5. 29.5 Winding Angle
6. 29.6 Conclusions
7. References
Chapter 30: Fibre Glass Reinforced Flexible Pipe Under External Pressure
1. 30.1 Introduction
2. 30.2 FE Analysis
3. 30.3 Results and Discussions
4. 30.5 Conclusions
5. References
Chapter 31: Steel Wire Bonded Flexible Pipe Under Internal Pressure
1. 31.1 Introduction
2. 31.2 Analytical Solution
3. 31.3 Finite Element Analysis
4. 31.4 Analysis Results
5. 31.5 Experimental Test
6. 31.6 Engineering Burst Pressure Formula
7. References
Chapter 32: Steel Wire Bonded Flexible Pipe Under External Pressure
1. 32.1 Introduction
2. 32.2 Analytical solution
3. 32.3 Numerical Simulations
4. 32.4 Experimental Test
5. 32.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 33: Steel Wire Bonded Flexible Pipe Under Bending and Internal Pressure
1. 33.1 Introduction
2. 33.2 Analytical Solution
3. 33.3 Numerical Simulations
4. 33.4 Pure Bending Experimental Test
5. 33.5 Combined Internal Pressure and Bending Experimental Test
6. 33.6 Comparison of Results
7. 33.7 Conclusions
8. References
Chapter 34: Cross-Sectional Design and Case Study for Steel Wire Bonded Flexible Pipe
1. 34.1 Introduction
2. 34.2 Cross-Sectional Design
3. 34.3 Case Study
4. 34.4 Validation by FE Model
5. 34.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 35: Damage Assessment for Steel Wire Bonded Flexible Pipes
1. 35.1 Introduction
2. 35.2 Analytical Method
3. 35.3 Finite Element Analysis
4. 35.4 Comparison between Analytical Method and FEM
5. 35.5 Summary
6. References
Chapter 36: Third-Party Damage for Steel Wire Bonded Flexible Pipe
1. 36.1 Introduction
2. 36.2 Pipeline, Soil and Tamper Parameters
3. 36.3 Finite Element Model
4. 36.4 Loading and Boundary Conditions
5. 36.5 Analysis Results
6. 36.6 Summary
7. References

Index

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List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1: Overview of flexible composite pipe applications.
Table 1.2: Comparisons of four different risers.
Table 1.3: Cost comparison between flexible and rigid jumpers.
Table 1.4: Differences between flexible composite pipe and rigid carbon steel pipe.
Table 1.5: Cost comparison between rigid pipe and composite flexible pipe.
Table 1.6: Failure modes and design criteria for unbonded flexible pipes [8].
Table 1.7: Failure modes and failure mechanisms for FCP.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1: Test procedure for polymer materials.
Table 2.2: Test procedures for metallic materials.
Table 2.3: Potential failure modes for high temperature pressure sheath.
Table 2.4: Activation energies for permeability and diffusion in polyethylenes.
Table 2.5: Permeability coefficient for HDPE.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Steel permissible utilization factors for ancillary equipment [2].
Table 3.2: Potential defects and possible cause of bend stiffener.
Table 3.3: End-fitting permissible utilization factors for unbonded flexible pipes [3].
Table 3.4: Degradation mechanisms for the reinforcements and end-fittings’ materials.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Probability model of resistance parameters.
Table 4.2: Statistical properties of resistance for the RTP pipe.
Table 4.3: Statistical properties of load condition No. 1.
Table 4.4: Statistical properties of load condition No. 2.
Table 4.5: Target reliability (corresponding to load condition 1).
Table 4.6: Target reliability (corresponding to load condition 2).
Table 4.7: Safety factors (corresponding to load condition 1).
Table 4.8: Safety factors (corresponding to load condition 2).

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Permissible utilization of stress for local buckling.
Table 6.2: Properties and requirements of flexible pipe components.
Table 6.3: Ratio range and application.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1: Boundary conditions in FEM.
Table 7.2: Geometric and material parameters of FEM.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1: Basic parameters for each model.
Table 8.2: Comparison of buckling pressures between analytical solution and FEM.
Table 8.4: Parameters of the steel strips.
Table 8.3: Geometric parameters of inner and outer HDPE layers.
Table 8.5: Material properties.
Table 8.6: Comparison between two testing groups.
Table 8.7: Ovalities of the testing specimens.
Table 8.8: Comparison of three methods.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1: Loading path under combined load.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1: Load path under combined loads.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1: Design Requirements.
Table 12.2: Geometrical parameters.
Table 12.3: Material parameters.
Table 12.4: Utilization factor for 8-inch flexible pipe.
Table 12.5: Load Cases.
Table 12.6: Stresses and strains utilization for different layers.
Table 12.7: FEA prediction results.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1: Predicted fatigue life.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1: Pipe specifications used at PDVSA project.
Table 14.2: End fitting weights with flange
Table 14.3: Pipe parameters.
Table 14.4: Material constants.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1: Initial ovality of the testing specimens.
Table 15.2: Comparison between the measured and simulated results for each specimen.
Table 15.3: Differences between the analytical results and the experiment & FEM.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1: Actual dimensions of the tensile test specimen.

Chapter 18

Table 18.1: Pipe dimensions and structure parameters.

Chapter 19

Table 19.1: Geometry parameters of steel reinforced flexible pipe.
Table 19.2: Material properties of steel reinforced flexible pipe.
Table 19.3: Analytical results of burst pressure
Table 19.4: Comparison between analytical solution and FEM.

Chapter 20

Table 20.1: Comparison of buckling load between test and FE analysis

Chapter 21

Table 21.1: Parameters of the designed pipe.

Chapter 22

Table 22.1: Geometric parameters of SRFP.
Table 22.2: Physical and mechanical properties of PE100.
Table 22.3: Physical and mechanical properties of steel strip.
Table 22.4: Parameters of liner pipe with damage layer.
Table 22.5: Stress distributions of inner steel strip layer close to the damage

Chapter 23

Table 23.1: Flexible pipe layer design criteria [1].
Table 23.2: Elastomers used in bonded flexible pipes.
Table 23.3: Product range for hydrocarbon production and gas service
Table 23.4: Product range of bonded flexible hoses for oil export.
Table 23.5: Characteristics of hoses in a CALM system.
Table 23.6: Product range for rotary & vibrator hoses.
Table 23.7: Product range for cementing hoses.
Table 23.8: Product range for choke and kill hoses

Chapter 24

Table 24.1: Mechanical properties of PE.
Table 24.2: Transverse isotropic elastic properties of reinforced tapes.
Table 24.3: Damage initiation properties of reinforced tapes.
Table 24.4: Measured burst pressure of RTP specimens.
Table 24.5: Degradation factors.
Table 24.6: Burst pressure obtained from different methods.

Chapter 25

Table 25.1: Key parameters of RTP for collapse analyses.

Chapter 26

Table 26.1: Dimensions of 4-inch RTP.

Chapter 28

Table 28.1: Comparison of collapse load between FEA and formula for different D/t.
Table 28.2: Comparison of calculation results of RTP under bending.

Chapter 29

Table 29.1: Sectional parameters of FGRFP.
Table 29.2: Materials properties of each layer for FGRFP.

Chapter 30

Table 30.1: Dimensions of FGRFP.
Table 30.2: Material properties of each layer.
Table 30.3: Physical properties of material used for inner and outer layers

Chapter 31

Table 31.1: Physical and mechanical properties of materials for PSP.
Table 31.2: Value of burst pressure of five specimens [2].
Table 31.3: Comparison of burst pressures.

Chapter 32

Table 32.1: Geometric parameters of specimen.
Table 32.2: Comparison of buckling external pressure for different methods.

Chapter 33

Table 33.1: Mechanical properties of PE100 and steel wire.
Table 33.2: Dimension of experimental specimens.
Table 33.3: Geometric and parameters of PSP.
Table 33.4: Physical and mechanical properties of the PSP.
Table 33.5: Comparison of burst pressure.

Chapter 34

Table 34.1: Parameters for cross-sectional design.
Table 34.2: Material parameters.
Table 34.3: Design coefficients.
Table 34.4: Geometrical parameters.
Table 34.5: Individual capacities under different load cases.
Table 34.6: Design strength capacities under different load cases.
Table 34.7: Comparison between analytical solution and FEM.

Chapter 35

Table 35.1: Pipe parameters.
Table 35.2: Physical and mechanical properties of PE100.
Table 35.3: Physical and mechanical properties of steel wire.
Table 35.4: Comparison of short-term burst capacity for different methods.
Table 35.5: Burst capacity with different number of steel wires.

Chapter 36

Table 36.1: Pipeline geometry.
Table 36.2: Physical and mechanical parameters of soil.
Table 36.3: Materials parameters of temper.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1: Typical flexible riser configurations [2].
Figure 1.2: Categorization of flexible pipes.
Figure 1.3: Metal-based bonded flexible pipe [3].
Figure 1.4: Metal-based unbonded flexible pipe [6].
Figure 1.5: Water depth vs. internal diameter for unbonded flexible pipes [7].
Figure 1.6: Overview of unbonded flexible pipes in use – pressure/diameter [17, 18].
Figure 1.7: Typical construction of bonded FCP (courtesy of OPR Inc.).
Figure 1.8: Typical construction of unbonded FCP (courtesy of OPR Inc.).
Figure 1.9: Application envelope of flexible pipes.
Figure 1.10: Failure and damage mechanism for flexible pipe [18].
Figure 1.11: Procedure to determine the LCL, MPR and MOP [13].
Figure 1.12: Partial factors in limit state design.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1: Typical cross section of unbonded flexible pipes.
Figure 2.2: Typical temperature range of liner materials.
Figure 2.3: Typical construction of bonded FCP.
Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram of gases and water transport in a flexible pipe.
Figure 2.5: Flexible Pipe with ‘Anti-H2S’ Layer.
Figure 2.6: ‘Anti-H₂S’ efficiency time against H₂S content in the bore.
Figure 2.7: Most significant causes of damage to flexible pipes in 2002 and 2007.
Figure 2.8: PA-11 degradation curves, from API 17 TR2.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1: Selected ancillary equipment used in floating production system. 1. end fitting and bend stiffener, 2. buoyancy modules, 3. bend restrictor, 4. subsea buoy, 5. abrasion and impact protection, 6. riser base.
Figure 3.2: Ancillary equipment overview.
Figure 3.3: Schematic of bend stiffener and bellmouth.
Figure 3.4: Bellmouth loads and flexible pipe maximum angle.
Figure 3.5: Metallic bend restrictor.
Figure 3.6: Polymer bend restrictor.
Figure 3.7: Typical polymer bend restrictor.
Figure 3.8: Buoyancy modules used in controlling riser configuration.
Figure 3.9: Anodes arrangement.
Figure 3.10: Permeation of gases from the bore of flexible pipe into annulus [6].
Figure 3.11: Riser annulus condition surveillance system. (a) SubC-racs; (b) Technip venting system.
Figure 3.12: Example of end fittings for bonded and unbonded flexible pipe.
Figure 3.13: Typical end fitting of unbonded flexible pipes [9].
Figure 3.14: End fitting for unbonded flexible pipes [10].
Figure 3.15: Pressure sheath crimping.
Figure 3.16: A schematic illustration of an end-fitting barrier seal.
Figure 3.17: End fitting of NOV [9].
Figure 3.18: Typical end fitting of FCPs. (a) Flanged end fitting; (b) Coupling fitting.
Figure 3.19: End-fitting swaging process [13].
Figure 3.20: Connection types of typical end fittings
Figure 3.21: End termination with field swaging machine.
Figure 3.22: End fitting swaging machine.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Concept of failure probability.
Figure 4.2: Transformation from space of stochastic basis variable X to space of standardised normal variable U.
Figure 4.3: Typical cross section of RTP.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1: Flexible riser configurations [1].
Figure 5.2: Flowline configurations [2].
Figure 5.3: Flexible hose used in LNG transfer system [3].
Figure 5.4: Possible configurations for oil export system [4].
Figure 5.5: Inner surfaces of unbonded flexible pipe.
Figure 5.6: Typical cross section of an unbonded flexible pipe [5].
Figure 5.7: Carcass layer profile [6].
Figure 5.8: Pressure armor interlock profile [6].
Figure 5.9: Typical profile of tensile armors for helical layers.
Figure 5.10: Specific strength of various materials usable for tensile armours [7].
Figure 5.11: Cross wound four CFA layers flexible riser [7].
Figure 5.12: Flexible fiber reinforced pipe [8].
Figure 5.13: A schematic illustration of an end-fitting barrier seal [9].
Figure 5.14: Schematic of bend stiffener and bellmouth [1].
Figure 5.15: An example of bend stiffener [10].
Figure 5.16: Bend restrictor [6].

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1: Design and analysis flowchart
Figure 6.2: Relationship among weight, tension and bending curvature [5].
Figure 6.3: Models for cross-sectional analysis [14].
Figure 6.4: Bending behavior of unbonded flexible pipes.
Figure 6.5: Model of pipe and tendon geometry.
Figure 6.6: Geometric schematic diagram of tender [12].
Figure 6.7: Constraints at layer interfaces [14]
Figure 6.8: Slip direction of tendon under bending load. (a) Slip from Compression to Tensile Side, (b) Two Limited Curves
Figure 6.9: Umbilical operated from a turret-moored FPSO [14].
Figure 6.10: Short-term fatigue analysis for one hotspot/helix location [14].

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1: Mathematical parameters definition.
Figure 7.2: Stress-strain curve of Ramberg-Osgood model.
Figure 7.3: Kinematic coupling at RP-L of 3-layer model.
Figure 7.4: Models of armor layers
Figure 7.5: 5-Layer model with two tensile armor layers.
Figure 7.6: 7-layer flexible pipe model.
Figure 7.7: Pressure-tension curves of Model A1.
Figure 7.8: Pressure-axial displacement curves of Model A2.
Figure 7.9: Pressure-tension curves of Model B1.
Figure 7.10: Pressure-axial displacement curves of Model B2.
Figure 7.11: Hoop stress in sheaths of Model A1.
Figure 7.12: Hoop stress in sheaths of Model A2.
Figure 7.13: Hoop stress in sheaths of Model B1.
Figure 7.14: Hoop stress in sheaths of Model B2.
Figure 7.15: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model A1.
Figure 7.16: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model A2.
Figure 7.17: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model B1.
Figure 7.18: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model B2.
Figure 7.19: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model C.
Figure 7.20: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model D-pressure armor layer.
Figure 7.21: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model D-inner tensile armor layer.
Figure 7.22: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model D-outer tensile armor layer. *: free boundary with torsion restraint, **: Totally free boundary.
Figure 7.23: Mises stress distribution around the yield stress of pressure armor layer.
Figure 7.24: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model D-inner tensile armor layer.
Figure 7.25: Pressure-axial stress curves of Model D-outer tensile armor layer.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1: Mechanism of wet collapse and heart collapse mode [6].
Figure 8.2: Inner layer with initial perturbation under external pressure.
Figure 8.3: Mesh (a) and boundary conditions (b) of plane strain model.
Figure 8.4: Displacement—Pressure curves with varying φ_K.
Figure 8.5: φ_k—P_crn curves of FEM and fitting equation.
Figure 8.6: φ_k—Ρ_crn curves under different φ_D.
Figure 8.7: φ_D—Ρ_{crn – D} curves under different φ_K.
Figure 8.8: Displacement—φ_dAB curves with different φ_K.
Figure 8.9: Collapse modes with different φ_K in case of φ_D = 29.
Figure 8.10: Buckling of inner cylinder with spring supports.
Figure 8.11: Comparison between FEM and analytical solution.
Figure 8.12: Cross section of the flexible pipe.
Figure 8.13: Tensile tests of the samples.
Figure 8.14: Test results of stress-strain relationship of steel strip.
Figure 8.15: Stress-strain data of HDPE from tensile test.
Figure 8.16: Processed pipe details of Group A.
Figure 8.17: Hyperbaric chamber for pipe collapse test.
Figure 8.18: Time-pressure curves for 6 specimens.
Figure 8.19: Cross sections of collapsed pipes.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1: Mathematical parameter definition.
Figure 9.2: Flow chart of analytical solution procedure.
Figure 9.3: Tension and torsion on cross section of flexible pipe.
Figure 9.4: The effect of internal pressure on radial displacement.
Figure 9.5: The effect of internal pressure on axial force in helical elements.
Figure 9.6: Axial force in a helical element.
Figure 9.7: Axial tension from each component.
Figure 9.8: Effect of lay angle on tension.
Figure 9.9: Effect of lay angle on torsion.
Figure 9.10: Effect of lay angle on axial force.
Figure 9.11: Effect of lay angle on contact pressure.
Figure 9.12: Effect of D/t on tension.
Figure 9.13: Effect of D/t on torsion.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1: Reference systems for toroid surface.
Figure 10.2: Cross section of helical layer.
Figure 10.3: Darboux frame.
Figure 10.4: Micro section of helical wire.
Figure 10.5: The sliding mechanism model.
Figure 10.6: The axial displacement of beam.
Figure 10.7: The axial force of beam.
Figure 10.8: The axial force of helical wire.
Figure 10.9: The axial force of helical wire.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1: Three layers with tensile armor layer.
Figure 11.2: Seven layers flexible pipe model without carcass layer.
Figure 11.3: Eight layers full flexible pipe model.
Figure 11.5: Axial stress-strain curves of inner helical tendons.
Figure 11.6: Axial stress-strain curves of outer helical tendons.
Figure 11.7: Comparison of FEA results with analytical results – pressure armor layer.
Figure 11.8: Comparison of FEA results with analytical results – inner tensile armor layer.
Figure 11.9: Comparison of FEA results with analytical results – outer tensile armor layer.
Figure 11.10: Tension in different load path.
Figure 11.11: Axial stress of pressure armor.
Figure 11.12: Axial stress of inner tensile armor.
Figure 11.13: Axial stress of outer tensile armor.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1: Flow chart of design procedure.
Figure 12.2: Detailed mesh of 7-layer FE model.
Figure 12.3: Burst failure mode of flexible pipe.
Figure 12.4: Tension failure mode of flexible pipe.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1: Example of wave scatter blocking [1].
Figure 13.2: JONSWAP spectra for five sea states [11].
Figure 13.3: Wave time history curves for five sea states [11].
Figure 13.4: Riser configuration.
Figure 13.5: Time history of tension at point A.
Figure 13.6: Time history of curvature at point A.
Figure 13.7: Time history of tension at point B.
Figure 13.8: Time history of curvature at point B.
Figure 13.9: Time history of stress at point A in the inner armor.
Figure 13.10: Time history of stress at point A in the outer armor.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1: Typical structure of SRFP (courtesy of OPR Inc.).
Figure 14.2: Offshore application of steel reinforced flexible pipe.
Figure 14.3: Production line for steel reinforced flexible pipe.
Figure 14.4: End Fittings.
Figure 14.5: Sectional view of pipe under bending moment.
Figure 14.6: Schematic illustration of SRFP (four reinforcement layers).
Figure 14.7: Layers and radii indication on sectional view of the pipe.
Figure 14.8: Sectional view of the pipe layers.
Figure 14.9: ABAQUS FE model for SRFP.
Figure 14.10: Locations of the selected element on layer 2 for comparison.
Figure 14.11: Variation of hoop stress on layer 2.
Figure 14.12: Variation of axial stress on layer 2.
Figure 14.13: Radial stress deviation between FE analysis and analytical solution.
Figure 14.14: Radial stress variations of three random elements on outer layer.
Figure 14.15: Axial stress between Layer 2 and Layer 3.
Figure 14.16: Hoop stress between layer 2 and layer 3.
Figure 14.17: comparision of Mises stress on layer 2 & layer 3.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1: Stress-strain relationship of steel from tensile test.
Figure 15.2: Stress-strain relationship of PE from tensile test.
Figure 15.3: Hyperbaric chamber for pipe collapse test.
Figure 15.4: Testing sample.
Figure 15.5: Time-pressure curve for Specimen 1–3.
Figure 15.6: Collapse behavior of the SRFP.
Figure 15.7: Loads and boundary conditions.
Figure 15.8: Displacement contour in radial direction.
Figure 15.9: Ovality-pressure curve for SP-2.
Figure 15.10: Mises stress contour of the steel strip.
Figure 15.11: Mises stress for different reinforcement layers.
Figure 15.12: Pressure-ovality curves of SRFP for different diameter-thickness rations of outer tube.
Figure 15.13: Pressure-ovality curves of SRFP for different D₂/t₂ rations of inner tube.
Figure 15.14: Pressure-ovality curves of SRFP with different steel strip layers number.
Figure 15.15: Pressure-ovality curves of SRFP with different friction coefficient.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1: Outline of the test specimen.
Figure 16.2: Tensile test of specimen in process.
Figure 16.3: Load-extension curve for A1.
Figure 16.4: Load-extension curve for A2.
Figure 16.5: Load-extension curve for A3.
Figure 16.6: Load-extension curve for A4.
Figure 16.7: Comparison of the load-extension curves for the four specimens.
Figure 16.8: Reinforcement layer of the helically winding steel strip.
Figure 16.9: Load and boundary conditions of SRFP subjected to pure tension.
Figure 16.10: Stress-strain curve of PE material.
Figure 16.11: Stress-strain curve of steel strip.
Figure 16.12: Load-extension curves from test and FE analysis.
Figure 16.13: Mises stress distribution of inner PE tube.
Figure 16.14: Mises stress distribution of outer PE tube.
Figure 16.15: Mises stresses in the middle span cross section.
Figure 16.16: Equivalent strain (PEEQ) of inner and outer PE tubes.
Figure 16.17: Equivalent strain distribution of outer PE tube.
Figure 16.18: Fracture mode of outer PE layer.
Figure 16.19: Mises stress distribution for the outmost steel strip reinforcement layer.
Figure 16.20: Node locations along the width of steel strip in first reinforcement layer.
Figure 16.21: Mises stresses at nodes along the path for different extensions.
Figure 16.22: Comparison of Mises stresses for different layers.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1: FE model of SRFP.
Figure 17.2: Displacement contour plot of the pipe under pure bending.
Figure 17.3: Relationship between bending moment and curvature of pipe.
Figure 17.4: Relationship between bending stiffness and curvature of pipe.
Figure 17.5: Relationship between bending moment and ovality of cross section.
Figure 17.6: Tensile side of inner PE layer.
Figure 17.7: Compressive side of inner PE layer.
Figure 17.8: PEEQ of the inner PE layer.
Figure 17.9: Mises contour plot of the outer PE layer.
Figure 17.10: PEEQ of the outer PE layer.
Figure 17.11: Mises stress of the first steel strip reinforcement layer.
Figure 17.12: Mises stress of the first steel strip reinforcement layer.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1: Winding angle variation before and after tensile load.
Figure 18.2: Load identification in pipe cross section.
Figure 18.3: Flow chart of analytical solution.
Figure 18.4: HDPE test facility and test results.
Figure 18.5: Steel strip test facility and test result.
Figure 18.6: Modeling and meshing of HDPE layer and steel strip layer.
Figure 18.7: Load applied at pipe end in ABAQUS.
Figure 18.8: Constraint and boundary conditions at each end of the pipe.
Figure 18.9: Hoop stress response of innermost strip under internal pressure and preloaded tension.
Figure 18.10: Sequence of hoop stress variation of innermost reinforcement in T → P load case.
Figure 18.11: Locations of selected three nodes.
Figure 18.12: Axial displacement-pressure response of three chosen nodes.
Figure 18.13: Variation of Mises stress in the pressure-tension load sequence.
Figure 18.14: Variation of axial load with axial displacement after internal pressure applied.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1: Pure flexural deformation of pipeline.
Figure 19.2: Infinitesimal element of pipeline under pure bending moment.
Figure 19.3: Mesh generation of PE layers.
Figure 19.4: Mesh generation of composite layer with steel strip.
Figure 19.5: Mises stress of steel strip under bending radius of 1 MBR in the failure moment.
Figure 19.6: Strain of inner and outer PE layer under bending radius of 1 MBR in the failure moment.
Figure 19.7: Mises stress of steel strip under bending radius of 1.5 MBR in the failure moment.
Figure 19.8: Strain of inner and outer PE layer under bending radius of 1.5 MBR in the failure moment.
Figure 19.9: Mises stress of steel strip under bending radius of 2 MBR in the failure moment.
Figure 19.10: Strain of inner and outer PE layer under bending radius of 2 MBR in the failure moment.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1: SRFP bent to a certain curvature.
Figure 20.2: Injecting the specimen with water.
Figure 20.3: Pressure history for specimen with initial bend radius of 1 m.
Figure 20.4: Pressure history for specimen with initial bend radius of 1.2 m.
Figure 20.5: Collapse of SRFP with the bend radius of 1 m.
Figure 20.6: Collapse of SRFP with bend radius of 1 m.
Figure 20.7: Ovality-pressure curve with bend radius of 1 m.
Figure 20.8: Mises stress of the inner PE tube.
Figure 20.9: Mises stress of the forth steel strip layer.
Figure 20.10: Comparison of ovaity between different material properties for SRFP.
Figure 20.11: Ovality-pressure curves for different curvature radii.
Figure 20.12: Collapse pressure of SRFP with different curvature radii.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1: Geometrical properties of reinforcement layers [7].
Figure 21.2: Contour plot of the pipe subjected to external pressure.
Figure 21.3: Relationship between the ovality and external pressure.

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1: Steel reinforced flexible pipe model.
Figure 22.2: Steel strip model.
Figure 22.3: Local damage model.
Figure 22.4: Energy comparison chart.
Figure 22.5: Stress distribution of steel strip layer 1 (with damage).
Figure 22.6: Stress distribution of steel strip layer 2 (with damage).
Figure 22.7: Stress distribution of steel strip layer 3 (with damage).
Figure 22.8: Stress distribution of steel strip layer 4 (with damage).
Figure 22.9: Stress distribution of steel layer 1 (without damage).
Figure 22.10: Stress distribution of steel strip layer 4 (without damage).
Figure 22.11: Inner steel strip layer around the applied damage.
Figure 22.12: Stress diagram of inner steel strip (0 mm).
Figure 22.13: Stress diagram of inner steel strip (3 mm).
Figure 22.14: Stress diagram of inner steel strip (6 mm).
Figure 22.15: Stress distributions of inner steel strip (6 mm).
Figure 22.16: Stress of the steel strip 1 (strength reduction factor of 1.0).
Figure 22.17: Stress of the steel strip 2 (strength reduction factor of 0.95).
Figure 22.18: Stress of the steel strip 3 (strength reduction factor of 0.9).
Figure 22.19: Stress of the steel strip 4 (strength reduction factor of 0.85).

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1: Typical boned flexible pipe [3].
Figure 23.2: Design activities synoptic of oil offloading line [6].
Figure 23.3: General arrangement of submerged loading system [6].
Figure 23.4: Main layers of bonded flexible hose, courtesy of Contitech.
Figure 23.5: Built-in and swaged couplings, courtesy of Contitech [8].
Figure 23.6: End fitting, courtesy Dunlop Oil & Marine [9].
Figure 23.7: Property variation in modulus versus temperature for 3 polystyrenes.
Figure 23.8: Production and gas lift hoses on the Heidrun TLP.
Figure 23.9: Example of floating hoses in a CALM system [11].
Figure 23.10: Choke and kill lines installed on Ensco 101 Jack up drilling rig.
Figure 23.11: Flexible hose risk classification.

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1: Cross-section of RTP (courtesy of OPR Inc.).
Figure 24.2: Burst samples after testing.
Figure 24.3: Cylindrical coordinate system.
Figure 24.4: Relation of two coordinate systems.
Figure 24.5: Fibre damage evolution of layer 2 (SDV3 contour plot).
Figure 24.6: Matrix damage evolution 3 (SDV4 contour plot).
Figure 24.7: Comparison of analytical analysis with FE analysis for RTP under internal pressure.

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1: Coordinate system and geometric parameters.
Figure 25.2: Illustration of shear deformation.
Figure 25.3: Local Coordinate system for reinforced tape.
Figure 25.4: Volume represent element.
Figure 25.5: Stress-strain relation of HPDE.
Figure 25.6: Distribution of Gaussian integral points.
Figure 25.7: Flow Chart of analytical solution procedure.
Figure 25.8: FE model of RTP cross-section.
Figure 25.9: Collapse pressure – ovality curves.
Figure 25.10: Variation of normal strains with ovality at key locations.
Figure 25.11: Possible locations of the maximum strain.
Figure 25.12: Effect of initial imperfections on pressure-ovality curves of RTPs.
Figure 25.13: Effects of shear deformation on pressure-ovality curves.
Figure 25.14: Effects of amendment of R and t on pressure-ovality curves.

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1: An infinite long RTP pipe under pure bending.
Figure 26.2: Deformation of the cross-section.
Figure 26.3: Tensile tests of HDPE samples.
Figure 26.4: Stress-strain data of tensile tests for HDPE.
Figure 26.5: Simplification of reinforced layer.
Figure 26.6: Flow chart of the calculation procedure.
Figure 26.7: ABAQUS model of RTP.
Figure 26.8: Bending test set-up and specimen.
Figure 26.9: Comparison of results from bending test, analytical solution and FE analysis.
Figure 26.10: Stress distribution of fiber in FE analysis.
Figure 26.11: Effect of wall-thickness.
Figure 26.12: Effect of diameter.
Figure 26.13: Effect of D/t ratio.
Figure 26.14: Effect of initial ovality.

Chapter 27

Figure 27.1: Schematic diagram of reinforced thermoplastic pipe.
Figure 27.2: Cross section of RTP.
Figure 27.3: Simplification of reinforcement layers.
Figure 27.4: Geometry of a single helical wire.
Figure 27.5: RTP cross section under combined tension and internal pressure.
Figure 27.6: Stress-strain relation of HDPE.
Figure 27.7: Flowing chart of analytical solution.
Figure 27.8: RTP model in ABAQUS.
Figure 27.9: Kevlar wires in ABAQUS.
Figure 27.10: Constraints of RTP at pipe ends.
Figure 27.11: Tension-extension relation of RTP.
Figure 27.12: Stress distribution of Kevlar wires in the reinforcement layers.
Figure 27.13: Behavior of Kevlar wires from analytical solution and FEM.
Figure 27.14: Radial deformation for radial displacements analysis.
Figure 27.15: Effect of internal pressure on the tension-extension relation.
Figure 27.16: Effect of internal pressure on the stress behavior of Kevlar wires.
Figure 27.17: Effect of lay angle on the Tension-Extension relation of RTP.
Figure 27.18: Effect of lay angle on the behavior of Kevlar wires.
Figure 27.19: Effect of D/t ratio on the Tension-Extension relation of RTP.
Figure 27.20: Effect of D/t on the behavior of Kevlar wires.
Figure 27.21: Effect of amount of Kelvar wires on the tension-extension relation.
Figure 27.22: Effect of amount of Kelvar wires on the behavior of single Kevlar wire.

Chapter 28

Figure 28.1: Pipe under load of combined bending and external pressure.
Figure 28.2: Deformation of the cross section.
Figure 28.3: Simplification of reinforced layer.
Figure 28.4: Flow chart of the calculation procedure.
Figure 28.5: Finite element model and coordinate system.
Figure 28.6: Relationship between k_p and D₀/t for E = 1232.8 MPa, σ₀ = 21.2 MPa.
Figure 28.7: Relationship between k_p and D₀/t for Δ₀ = 0.005, σ₀ = 21.2 MPa.
Figure 28.8: Relationship between k_p and D₀/t for Δ₀ = 0.005, E = 1232.8 MPa.
Figure 28.9: Relationship between k_p and E for Δ₀ = 0.005, D₀/t = 6.
Figure 28.10: Relationship between k_p, D₀/t and E/s₀ for Δ₀ = 0.005.
Figure 28.11: Scattered data points for g(Δ).
Figure 28.12: Relationship between k_b and D₀/t for E = 1232.8 MPa, s₀ = 21.2 MPa.
Figure 28.13: Relationship between k_b and D₀ for E = 1232.8 MPa, s₀ = 21.2 MPa.
Figure 28.14: Relationship between k_b and E for s₀ = 21.2 MPa, D₀/t = 6.
Figure 28.15: Relationship between k_b and s₀ for E = 1232.8 MPa, D₀/t = 6.
Figure 28.16: Predicted collapse data for RTP.
Figure 28.17: Approximate interaction collapse envelope for RTP.
Figure 28.18: Empirical formula for collapse of RTP.
Figure 28.19: Comparison between the formula and FEM analysis.

Chapter 29

Figure 29.1: Typical construction of FGRFP (courtesy of OPR Inc.).
Figure 29.2: Hoop stress distribution of reinforced layers for FGRFP under internal pressure.
Figure 29.3: Displacement distributions of FGRFP pipe in the radial and axial directions.
Figure 29.4: Stress S11 distribution of pipe cross section.
Figure 29.5: Stress distribution of pipe cross section S22.
Figure 29.6: Differences between FE method and analytical solution.
Figure 29.7: Analytical solutions of axial stress for different fibre glass layer.
Figure 29.8: FE analysis results of hoop stress for different fibre glass layer.
Figure 29.9: Effect of winding angle on internal pressure.

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1: Deformation of pipe cross section due to external pressure.
Figure 30.2: Boundary conditions of both end cross sections.
Figure 30.3: First order modal deformation.
Figure 30.4: Pressure-ovality curve.
Figure 30.5: Initial ovaility.
Figure 30.6: Pressure-ovality curves for different initial ovality.
Figure 30.7: Initial wall eccentricity.
Figure 30.8: Deformation of FGRFP in 0.0%, wall eccentricity.
Figure 30.9: Deformation of FGRFP in 10.0% wall eccentricity.
Figure 30.10: Deformation of FGRFP in 20.0% wall eccentricity.
Figure 30.11: Pressure-ovality curves of FGRFP under different wall eccentricities.
Figure 30.12: Pressure-ovality curves of FGRFP for different D/t ratios of outer layers.
Figure 30.13: Pressure-ovality curves for different numbers of reinforced layers.
Figure 30.14: Pressure-ovality curves for different D₂/t₂ ratios of inner PE layer.
Figure 30.15: Pressure-ovality curves of FGRFP for different materials.

Chapter 31

Figure 31.1: Composite structure of steel wire bonded flexible pipe.
Figure 31.2: Cylindrical coordinate system.
Figure 31.3: Relation of two coordinate systems.
Figure 31.4: Simplified composite layer.
Figure 31.5: Basic unit of the composite layer.
Figure 31.6: FE meshed models of PSP and steel wire.
Figure 31.7: Comparison of calculated steel wire’s strain under internal pressure.
Figure 31.6: FE meshed models of PSP and steel wire.
Figure 31.9: Strains-winding angle curve for steel wire bonded flexible pipe.
Figure 31.10: Test history of internal pressure.
Figure 31.11: Failure modes of specimens under internal pressure.
Figure 31.12: Model for steel wire bonded flexible pipe.

Chapter 32

Figure 32.1: Deformation of cross section under external pressure.
Figure 32.2: Shear deformation of cross section (one quarter of the pipe).
Figure 32.3: Tensile stress-strain curve of PE100.
Figure 32.4: External pressure-ellipticity curve compared by PE and PSP pipe.
Figure 32.5: Global and local coordinate systems.
Figure 32.6: Distribution of Gauss integration points (one quarter of the pipe).
Figure 32.7: Pipe matrix strain nephogram under external hydrostatic pressure.
Figure 32.8: Steel wires strain nephogram under external hydrostatic pressure.
Figure 32.9: External pressure-ellipticity curve.
Figure 32.10: External pressure-hoop strain curves.
Figure 32.11: Buckled PSP after resist-external pressure experiment.
Figure 32.12: External pressure – time curve,.

Chapter 33

Figure 33.1: Pure bending deformation of PSP.
Figure 33.2: Cross section of PSP.
Figure 33.3: Quarter of cross section.
Figure 33.4: Half of axial section.
Figure 33.5: Tensile stress-strain curve of PE100 (a) and steel wire (b).
Figure 33.6: Bending moment – curvature relation of PSP and PE pipe.
Figure 33.7: Nephogram under bending curvature with 0.2 m^–1: HDPE matrix (a) and steel wires (b).
Figure 33.8: Schematic diagram(a), experimental photo(b) and buckling point(c) of bending test.
Figure 33.9: Bending moment-curvature relationship of experiments, theoretical method, and numerical simulation.
Figure 33.10: Equipment for burst pressure experiment.
Figure 33.11: Test results.
Figure 33.12: Partially failed pipe.
Figure 33.13: Comparison of the two methods.

Chapter 34

Figure 34.1: Design procedure for steel wire bonded flexible pipe.
Figure 34.2: Deformation under external pressure.
Figure 34.3: Diameter definition of steel wire bonded flexible pipe.
Figure 34.4: Finite element model of steel wire bonded flexible pipe.
Figure 34.5: Burst failure of steel wire bonded flexible pipe, [MPa].
Figure 34.6: Relationship between bending moment and curvature.
Figure 34.7: Burst failure of PSP under 1.5 MBR, [MPa].
Figure 34.8: Relationship of external pressure and ovality of steel wire bonded flexible pipe.

Chapter 35

Figure 35.1: The global coordinate (a) and quarter cross section (b) of flexible pipe.
Figure 35.2: ABAQUS mesh model of steel wire bonded flexible pipe.
Figure 35.3: Strain distribution of pipe under internal pressure.
Figure 35.4: Comparison of steel wire strain between FEA and analytical solution.
Figure 35.5: Variation of strains of inner steel wire with internal pressure.
Figure 35.6: Variation of inner steel wire strain with winding angle.
Figure 35.7: Short-term burst capacity for winding angles of 54°–60° using numerical analysis and engineering formulas.
Figure 35.8: Burst capacity values with steel wire diameters.
Figure 35.9: Effect of missing steel wires on short-term burst capacity.
Figure 35.10: ABAQUS models of flexible pipe with defect-free and damaged layer.
Figure 35.11: Stress distributions of inner (a) and outer (b) steel wire layer.
Figure 35.12: Stress distribution of inner steel wire layer.
Figure 35.13: Stress distribution of defect-free pipe.

Chapter 36

Figure 36.1: Geometric model.
Figure 36.2: Finite element model.
Figure 36.3: Kinetic energy of PE pipe and PSP.
Figure 36.4: Strain distributions under the maximum impact.
Figure 36.5: Strain distributions of pipe at final steady state.
Figure 36.6: Strain distributions of steel wire in PSP.
Figure 36.7: Relationship with vertical impact and time of PSP and PE pipes.
Figure 36.8: Relationship of displacement and time with top and bottom node points.
Figure 36.9: Relationship between tamping velocity and maximum vibration velocity.
Figure 36.10: Displacement histories for pipe top of PSP with different buried depth.
Figure 36.11: Steel wire stress distribution under impact load.

ADVANCES IN PIPES AND PIPELINES

Flexible Pipes

Qiang Bai

Yong Bai

Weidong Ruan

This edition first published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-04126-9

Preface

With the rapid development of pipeline engineering technology, flexible pipes have been widely used in the oil and gas industry, both onshore and offshore. They are considered to be an efficient solution in terms of technical as well as economic performance due to their easy and fast laying procedure, durability and recoverability. Nowadays, many researchers and engineers keep on exploring and advancing new design and analysis methods for different types of flexible pipes. However, there is no book available that systematically introduces the design procedures and analysis criteria for different types of flexible pipes.