Contemporary Health Physics: Problems and Solutions
Second Edition
2009
ISBN: 978-3-527-40824-5
Joseph John Bevelacqua
Health Physics in the\hb 21st Century
2008
ISBN: 978-3-527-40822-1
Joseph John Bevelacqua
Health Physics
Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards
Author
Dr. Joseph John Bevelacqua
Bevelacqua Resources
343 Adair Drive
Richland, WA
USA
Cover Illustration:
Normalized absorbed dose distribution from an array of internal radiation-generating devices generating a spectrum of protons in water. This figure was initially published in Bevelacqua, J. J. (2010). Feasibility of Using Internal Radiation-Generating Devices in Radiotherapy. Health Physics, 98, 614.
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ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-69434-1
Mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-69432-7
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This book is dedicated to my wife Terry
and
Sammy, Chelsea, Molly, and Eli
and
Anthony, Stayce, Lucy, Anna, Samuel, Matthew, and Henry
and
Jeffrey, David, and Hannah
and
Megan, Marlando, Isaiah, and Annabelle
and
Peter and Jessica
and
Michael, Tara, Lauren, Janelle, and Lucas
and
Karen, Adam, and Hemma
Preface
Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards addresses emerging radiation protection topics that are judged by the author to be relevant in the upcoming decades, but were not the primary focus in Health Physics in the 21st Century. The selection of topics represents the author's judgment regarding the importance of these emerging and evolving areas, which are significantly influenced by his experience, educational background, research interests, and national and international events that have health physics implications. Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards encompasses emerging radiation-generating technologies, advances in existing technology, applications of existing technology to new areas, and postulated new technologies and devices.
The text covers discussions of technology that will affect the world's population as the twenty-first century proceeds. Topics include the nuclear fuel cycle and the proliferation of nuclear materials and associated technologies. Laser isotope separation and advanced centrifuge technologies have the potential for efficient uranium enrichment and the production of highly enriched uranium.
Expansion of nuclear power technology to less developed nations with limited technical and operational experience increases the potential for nuclear events and accidents. The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi accident highlighted the fact that even advanced nations are vulnerable to nuclear accidents, and the licensing basis of nuclear power facilities must be carefully examined to ensure that these facilities are capable of protecting their fission product barriers during natural and man-made events. Degradation of fission product barriers facilitates the release of radioactive material into the environment and has the potential for significant environmental impacts and economic disruption. Power reactor accidents are not the only source of human and environmental disruption related to the release of radioactive material.
Associated with the proliferation of nuclear technology is the clandestine development of nuclear weapons, improvised nuclear devices (INDs), and radiological dispersal devices (RDDs). These devices can be utilized for terrorist purposes and have the potential for significant harm. The use of stolen nuclear weapons or INDs would produce mass casualties and widespread destruction and result in contamination around the detonation site. RDDs are a lower-level threat, but their use would create significant psychological harm and economic disruption.
On a more positive note, nuclear materials and techniques are advancing medical imaging and therapy procedures. New techniques that deliver targeted dose to the tumor site while minimizing the absorbed dose to healthy tissue enhance the efficacy of treatments and minimize negative side effects. These techniques should enhance a patient's quality of life following treatment.
Expansion in the use of nuclear materials also affects the radiation dose received by the public. As noted in NCRP 160, the expanded use of nuclear medicine techniques has significantly increased public doses. Nuclear materials have also inadvertently found their way into consumer products through a variety of sources including recycled metals.
Twenty-first century technologies are also facilitating the entry of private firms to develop orbital transport vehicles. These vehicles initially focus on low earth orbit, but may eventually permit travel beyond the orbital trajectory. This technology will expose the public to new sources of radiation as they leave the protective electromagnetic shield provided by the earth and the shielding afforded by the atmosphere.
The public will initially have the opportunity for low earth orbit and suborbital flights where they have the potential for increased exposure to cosmic rays and solar particle events. Their exposure to protons and heavy ions presents new challenges for radiation protection professionals.
The increased use and application of nuclear materials and technology also affect nuclear regulations. In addition to the Fukushima Daiichi accident, low earth orbit activities involving public passengers, additional medical treatment methodologies, and unforeseen events will likely influence regulatory involvement and rulemaking. International regulations and the harmonization of national nuclear regulations are other areas that will receive additional emphasis in the forthcoming decades. These and many more topics are addressed in this book.
The topics selected for inclusion in this text are based on near-term technologies and their extrapolation into the future and cutting-edge technologies. Some areas involve incremental steps in existing health physics knowledge including aspects of Generation III and IV fission reactors. Other topics, such as uranium enrichment using laser isotope separation and cancer therapy using internal radiation-generating devices, require the development of concepts that may be relatively new to some health physicists. The extent to which public space travel becomes practical is uncertain and depends on technology development, demonstration of flight safety, economic viability, public interest and support, and regulatory involvement.
Paradigm shifts in thinking are necessary. For example, health physicists are currently trained to accept current regulatory practices (e.g., adequacy of reactor designs and appropriateness of existing emergency planning zones) as providing a bounding, safe framework for public protection following a power reactor accident. However, the Fukushima Daiichi accident challenged these paradigms and suggested that a number of basic design assumptions require challenge to ensure their adequacy. Emerging technologies also require independent thinking and a degree of open-mindedness that is often inhibited by regulatory practices, litigation concerns, and lack of confidence in the future.
As a means to facilitate the transition to new concepts, over 300 problems with solutions are provided. These problems are an integral part of the text, and they serve to integrate and amplify the chapter and appendix information. Readers are encouraged to carefully work each problem to maximize the benefit of this text.
This book is primarily intended for upper level undergraduate and graduate level health physics courses. Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards is also written for advanced undergraduate and graduate science and engineering courses. It will also be a useful reference for scientists and engineers participating in evolving nuclear technology areas including advanced fuel cycles, laser isotope separation, nuclear proliferation, and Generation IV fission reactors. Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards has applicability for studies involving nuclear power accidents, terrorist events utilizing INDs and RDDs, advanced nuclear medicine imaging and therapy approaches, public involvement in nuclear licensing, regulatory challenges, and establishing radiological standards and criteria for normal operations and major accident events. The book also is pertinent to the various health physics certification boards (e.g., the American Board of Health Physics) in developing examination questions.
The author offers his best wishes to health physicists as we meet the radiation protection challenges that will unfold in the twenty-first century.
Good luck.
Bonne chance.
Viel Glück.
Удачи.
Buena suerte.
Buona fortuna.
Joseph John Bevelacqua, PhD, CHP, RRPT Bevelacqua Resources
Richland, WA, USA
25 May 2015
Acknowledgments
Many individuals and organizations assisted the author in the development of this book. Assistance included discussions, information exchanges, and kind guidance. The author apologizes in advance to any individual or organization that was inadvertently omitted and is pleased to acknowledge the support of the following individuals and organizations:
American Nuclear Society
American Physical Society
Argonne National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory, National Nuclear Data Center
Dr Lowell Charlton, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Dr Mohan Doss, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
GE Healthcare
Health Physics Society
Professor Franck Guarnieri, Ecole des Mines de Paris
International Atomic Energy Agency
Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Professor Dale Kunz, University of Colorado
Professor Don Robson, Florida State University
Dr Eric Loewen, GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Research Council of Canada
Dr Robert C. Nelson, Research Reactor Safety Analysis Services
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Radiation Safety Information Computational Center
Dr John Parmentola, General Atomics
Professor M. L. Raghavan, University of Iowa
Research Center for Charged Particle Data, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Chiba, Japan
Dr Paul Rittman
Dr Joseph Shonka
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
Dr Igor Tarasov, Michigan State University
University of Wisconsin
US Department of Energy
US Department of Homeland Security
US Environmental Protection Agency
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Dr Keith Woodard, ABS Consulting, Inc.
Waste Isolation Pilot Plant.
Since one of the purposes of this text is to support the technical basis for evolving American Board of Health Physics certification examinations, a portion of the problems were derived from questions that appeared on previous examinations. As a prior panel member, vice chair, and chair of the Part II Examination Panel, I would like to thank my panel and all others whose exam questions have been consulted in formulating questions for this textbook.
The author is also fortunate to have worked with colleagues, students, mentors, and teachers who have shared their wisdom and knowledge, provided encouragement, or otherwise influenced the content of this text. The following individuals are acknowledged for their assistance during the author's career: Dick Amato, John Auxier, Lee Booth, Ed Carr, Paul Dirac, Bill Halliday, Tom Hess, Gordon Lodde, Bob Nelson, John Philpott, Lew Pitchford, John Poston, John Rawlings, Don Robson, Bob Rogan, Mike Slobodien, Jim Tarpinian, Jim Turner, and George Vargo. Sadly, a number of these colleagues are now deceased. The continuing encouragement of my best friend and wife, Terry, is gratefully acknowledged.
I would also like to thank the staff of Wiley-VCH with whom I have enjoyed working, particularly Dr Ulrike Fuchs, Sarah Tilley Keegan, Hans-Jochen Schmitt, Dr Heike Nöthe, Dr Martin Preuss, Anja Tschörtner, Stefanie Volk, and Ulrike Werner. The advice and encouragement of George Telecki of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is also acknowledged. Sujatha Krishna and the staff at SPi Global are acknowledged for preparation of the book's proofs.
A Note on Units
Although traditional English units are a source of comfort to the author and many applied health physicists in the United States, this text uses the International System of Units (SI). As US regulations are harmonized with international recommendations and regulations, there is an evolving transition to SI.
For those readers that feel more comfortable with conventional units, the following conversion factors are provided:
SI unit
Traditional US unit
Bq
2.7 × 10−11 Ci
Gy
100 rad
C/kg air
3881 R
Sv
100 rem
As the reader can attest, the choice of units is often a matter of familiarity and comfort. However, uniformity and clear communication between various scientific and engineering fields and nations suggest the need to adopt SI System of Units.
With the Fukushima Daiichi accident, some health physicists saw a set of unfamiliar units including TBq, PBq, and EBq. For specificity, standard metric prefixes are used in Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards:
Standard metric prefixes
Metric prefix
Abbreviation
Value
exa
E
1018
peta
P
1015
tera
T
1012
giga
G
109
mega
M
106
kilo
k
103
hecto
h
102
deka
da
101
deci
d
10−1
centi
c
10−2
milli
m
10−3
micro
μ
10−6
nano
n
10−9
pico
p
10−12
femto
f
10−15
atto
a
10−18
Part I Overview of Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards
Health Physics: Radiation-Generating Devices, Characteristics, and Hazards connects twentieth-century and twenty-first-century health physics in selected areas including the nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear accidents, radiological emergencies, nuclear terrorism and related events, nuclear medicine, public issues related to radiation and radioactive materials, and evolving regulatory issues. Specific topics include advanced nuclear reactors, laser uranium enrichment, actinide transformation, advanced medical devices, radiation therapy utilizing exotic particles and heavy ions, nuclear accidents, terrorism involving radioactive dispersal devices and improvised nuclear devices, and evolving regulatory requirements. These topics are active health physics areas. Other topics involving public space travel, harmonization of radiation protection regulations, using antimatter and internal radiation-generating devices in nuclear therapy applications, and implementation of advanced fuel cycles using Generation IV reactors are evolving areas that will more fully emerge as the twenty-first century progresses.
Seven chapters introduce these topics and basic knowledge required to understand the anticipated evolution of the health physics field. Background information is provided in eight appendices to smooth the transition to information needed to comprehend the emerging radiation-generating technologies. The reader should consult these appendices as they are referenced in the main text.
Some topical areas naturally appear in multiple chapters since they are significant and have many aspects. For example, the major nuclear power reactor accidents at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima Daiichi are addressed throughout the book and not restricted to Chapter 3 that focuses on reactor accidents. This organizational structure is appropriate since these accidents had a significant impact on the nuclear fuel cycle, planning for future nuclear emergencies, public issues associated with the nuclear power debate, and regulatory issues associated with reactor licensing and the selection of design and beyond design basis accidents.
The nature of this text suggests that its content is continuously evolving. As with any book, it is necessary to eventually freeze the content and focus on consolidation and editing. Text material was finalized in mid-2014 and the addition of new material essentially terminated at that time. Accordingly, some material may have evolved after that date including the ongoing description and development of Generation IV reactors, proposed changes to the 10CFR20 radiation protection regulations in the United States, and emerging advances in nuclear medicine. As warranted, references were added to reflect these evolving topics.