CONTENTS

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Preface

Symbols and Units

Conversion Factors

Abbreviations

Country Codes

Periodic Table of Elements

Part 1: Energy Resources, Generation and Storage

Batteries, 1. General
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. History
3. 3. Fundamental Laws
4. 4. Battery Properties and Characteristics
5. 5. Classification of Battery Systems
6. References
Batteries, 2. Primary Batteries
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Systems Employing an Aqueous Electrolyte
3. 3. Batteries with Nonaqueous Electrolyte
4. 4. Reserve Batteries
5. References
Batteries, 3. Secondary Batteries
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Batteries with Aqueous Electrolyte
3. 3. Batteries with Nonaqueous Electrolyte
4. References
Batteries, 4. Standards
1. 1. General
2. 2. National Standards
3. 3. International Standards
4. 4. Annex 1: IEC Standards on Batteries
5. 5. Annex 2: Designations by Manufacturers (Table 1)
6. 6. Annex 3, Examples of IEC Nomenclature Systems for Batteries
7. 7. Annex 4, Denoting Electrochemical Systems
8. References
Batteries, 5. Disposal and Environmental Protection
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Programs to Collect Disposed Batteries
3. 3. Recycling of Batteries
4. References
Biogas
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Biogas
3. 3. Biological Methanogenesis
4. 4. Technical Application of Anaerobic Digestion
5. 5. Feedstock for Anaerobic Digestion
6. 6. Process Parameters for Stable, Efficient Operation
7. 7. Environmental Impact of AD
8. 8. Storage, Pretreatment, Upgrading, and Uses of Biogas
9. References
Coal
1. 1. Coal Petrology
2. 2. Coalification
3. 3. Occurrence
4. 4. Classification
5. 5. Chemical Structure of Coal
6. 6. Coal Mining
7. 7. Coal Preparation
8. 8. Agglomeration
9. 9. Coal Conversion (Uses)
10. 10. Transportation
11. 11. Coal Storage
12. 12. Quality and Quality Testing
13. 13. Economic Aspects
14. References
Coal Liquefaction
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Indirect Coal Liquefaction
3. 3. Direct Coal Liquefaction
4. References
Coal Pyrolysis
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Thermoplastic Properties of Coal
3. 3. Yield and Distribution of Pyrolysis Products
4. 4. Kinetics
5. 5. Hydropyrolysis
6. 6. Pyrolysis Processes
7. References
Combustion
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. History of Combustion
3. 3. Combustion Fundamentals
4. 4. Combustion Products and Pollutants
5. 5. Fuels
6. 6. Energy Conversion by Combustion
7. 7. Combustion Processes and Combustors
8. 8. Power Generation – Thermal Power Plants
9. 9. Corrosion and Fouling
10. 10. Energy Storage
11. 11. Energy Transportation and Distribution
12. 12. Special Industries Using Combustion
13. 13. Combustion Diagnostics and Control
14. 14. Safety
15. 15. Sustainable Combustion – Climate Change Mitigation
16. 16. Combustion Synthesis
17. 17. Key Challenges and New Developments in Combustion
18. References
Fuel Cells
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Principles of Fuel Cells
3. 3. Classification of Fuel Cell Systems
4. 4. Examples of Application of Fuel Cells
5. References
Gas Production, 1. Introduction
1. 1. Types of Gases; General Overview of Production Methods and Characteristics
2. 2. Raw Materials for Gasification
3. 3. Physicochemical Basis for Gas Production
4. 4. Characteristics of the Basic Processes
5. 5. Product Gas Treatment
6. 6. Acknowledgement
7. References
Gas Production, 2. Processes
1. 1. Steam Reforming of Natural Gas and Other Hydrocarbons
2. 2. Noncatalytic Partial Oxidation and Special Gasification Processes for Higher-Boiling Hydrocarbons
3. 3. Gas Production from Coal, Wood, and Other Solid Feedstocks
4. References
5. Further Reading
Gas Production, 3. Gas Treating
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Carbon Monoxide Shift Conversion
3. 3. Carbonyl Sulfide Conversion
4. 4. Methanation and Methane Synthesis
5. 5. Absorption Processes
6. 6. Adsorption Processes
7. 7. Cryogenic Processes (→ Cryogenic Technology)
8. 8. Gas Separation by Membranes (→ Membranes and Membrane Separation Processes)
9. 9. Addition of Inerts or Other Substances
10. References
Heat Storage Media
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Practical Principles for Heat Storage Media
3. 3. Storage of Sensible Heat
4. 4. Storage of Latent Heat [10, 11, 14–18]
5. 5. Storage of Chemical Heat [19, 20]
6. References
Natural Gas
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Treating
3. 3. Liquefaction
4. 4. Transmission, Storage, and Distribution
5. 5. Economic Aspects
6. 6. Testing and Analysis
7. 7. Acknowledgement
8. References
9. Specific References
Nuclear Technology, 1. Fundamentals
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Design of a Nuclear Reactor
3. 3. Physical Processes [18–26]
4. References
Nuclear Technology, 2. Power Reactors, Survey
1. 1. Introduction, Scope of Utilization
2. 2. Important Technical and Economic Parameters
3. 3. Radiation Protection and Safety
4. 4. Survey of Reactor Types
5. 5. Acknowledgment
6. References
Nuclear Technology, 3. Fuel Cycle
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Uranium Production, Conversion, and Enrichment [11–13]
3. 3. Fabrication of Fuel Elements
4. 4. Chemical Reprocessing of Nuclear Fuels
5. 5. Radioactive Waste Management
6. 6. Safety Aspects in the Design of Reprocessing and Waste Treatment Plants
7. References
Oil and Gas, 1. Introduction
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Crude Oil
3. 3. Natural Gas
4. 4. History
5. 5. Reserves
6. 6. Resources
7. 7. Supply and Demand of Oil and Gas
8. References
Oil and Gas, 2. Formation of Reservoirs
1. 1. Source Rocks
2. 2. Reservoir Rocks
3. 3. Properties of Reservoir Rock
4. 4. Reservoir Fluids
5. 5. Reservoir Pressure and Temperature
6. 6. Flow of Fluids through the Reservoir
7. References
Oil and Gas, 3. Exploration for Oil and Gas
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Scanning the Subsurface for Exploration Targets
3. 3. Geology: Reservoir Model and Basin Simulation
4. 4. Basin Modeling and Risking
5. 5. Frontier Exploration Concepts: Crustal Structure and Continental Drift
6. References
Oil and Gas, 4. Drilling and Workover
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Rotary Drilling
3. 3. Advanced Drilling Techniques
4. 4. Offshore Drilling
5. 5. Casing and Cementation
6. 6. Workover
7. References
Oil and Gas, 5. Formation Evaluation
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Mud Logging
3. 3. Coring
4. 4. Wireline Logging
5. 5. Formation Testing
6. 6. Measurement While Drilling and Logging While Drilling
7. References
Oil and Gas, 6. Reservoir Performance
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Reservoir Characterization
3. 3. Resource Determination
4. 4. Reservoir Analysis
5. 5. Reservoir Performance and Recovery
6. References
Oil and Gas, 7. Production
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Preparing for Production
3. 3. Production Fundamentals
4. 4. Oil Production
5. 5. Natural Gas Production
6. 6. Injection
7. 7. Flow Assurance
8. 8. Offshore Production
9. References
Oil and Gas, 8. Field Processing
1. 1. Oil Field Processing
2. 2. Gas Field Processing
3. References
Oil and Gas, 9. Health, Safety, Environmental and Economic Aspects
1. 1. Health, Safety, and Environmental Aspects
2. 2. Economic Aspects
3. References
Oil Refining
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Crude Oils and Products
3. 3. Oil Refining Processes
4. 4. Environmental Protection in Oil Refining
5. 5. Integrated Refinery Models
6. 6. Corrosion and Materials
7. 7. Testing and Analysis
8. 8. Storage and Transport
9. References
10. Further Reading
Oil Sands
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Definitions
3. 3. Chemistry
4. 4. Viscous Oil Origins, Geological Setting and Resource Base Estimates
5. 5. In Situ Production Technologies
6. 6. Upgrading and Transportation
7. 7. Environmental Issues
8. References
9. Further Reading
Oil Shale
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Origin and Properties of Oil Shale
3. 3. World Resources and Deposits
4. 4. Exploitation
5. 5. Mining Methods
6. 6. Shale Preparation
7. 7. Pyrolysis
8. 8. Combustion
9. 9. Gasification
10. 10. Properties and Uses of the Products
11. 11. Outlook
12. References
Photoelectricity
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. External Photoeffect
3. 3. Internal Photoeffect
4. 4. Applications
5. References
Photovoltaic Cells
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. The Need for Renewable Energies – History of Photovoltaics
3. 3. Fundamentals
4. 4. Types of Photovoltaic Cells
5. 5. Uses
6. 6. Economic Aspects and Market
7. 7. Future of Photovoltaic Cells
8. 8. Acknowledgement
9. References
Solar Technology
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Solar Thermal Energy
3. 3. Passive Utilization of Solar Energy
4. 4. Photovoltaic Systems
5. 5. Photoelectrochemical Solar Energy Conversion
6. 6. Economic Aspects
7. 7. Acknowledgements
8. References
Thermoelectricity
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Theory
3. 3. Thermoelectric Materials
4. 4. Nanothermoelectrics
5. 5. Application of Thermoelectric Devices
6. 6. Economic Aspects
7. References
Wind Energy
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Power Content of Wind
3. 3. The Wind in Wind Energy
4. 4. Technology
5. 5. Economic Aspects
6. References

Part 2: Fuels

Automobile Exhaust Control
1. Introduction
2. 2. Pollutant Formation and Limitation → Automotive Fuels
3. 3. Catalytic Exhaust Aftertreatment, General Concepts
4. 4. Catalytic Aftertreatment of Stoichiometric Exhaust Gas
5. 5. Exhaust Aftertreatment for Diesel Vehicles
6. 6. Exhaust Aftertreatment for Lean-Burn Gasoline Engines
7. 7. Conclusion and Outlook
8. References
Automotive Fuels
1. 1. History
2. 2. Engine Technology
3. 3. Fuel Composition and Engine Efficiency
4. 4. Fuel Components
5. 5. Fuel Additives
6. 6. Fuel Standardization and Testing
7. 7. Storage and Transportation
8. 8. Alternative Fuels
9. References
Aviation Turbine Fuels
1. 1. History
2. 2. Fuel Types and Specifications
3. 3. Production
4. 4. Handling, Storage, and Transportation
5. 5. Legal Aspects
6. 6. Environmental Aspects
7. 7. Economic Aspects
8. 8. Future Trends
9. References
Heating Oil
1. 1. Domestic Heating Oil
2. 2. Residual Fuel Oil
3. References
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Properties
3. 3. Production and Processing
4. 4. Purification
5. 5. Storage and Transportation
6. 6. Uses
7. 7. Safety Aspects
8. 8. Economic Aspects [11, 12]
9. References
Marine Fuels
1. 1. History
2. 2. Specifications
3. 3. Composition
4. 4. Properties
5. 5. Outlook
Octane Enhancers
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Technical Information
3. 3. Types of Octane Enhancers
4. 4. Metal-Containing Additives
5. 5. Ashless Octane Enhancers
6. References
Petroleum Coke
1. 1. Introduction
2. 2. Physical and Chemical Properties
3. 3. Production
4. 4. Uses and Economic Aspects
5. 5. Quality Aspects
6. 6. Environmental and Safety Aspects
7. References

Author Index

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

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Editor in Chief:

Dr. Barbara Elvers, Hamburg, Germany

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Preface

This handbook features selected articles from the 7^th edition of ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, including newly written articles that have not been published in a printed edition before. True to the tradition of the ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia, products and processes are addressed from an industrial perspective, including production figures, quality standards and patent protection issues where appropriate. Safety and environmental aspects which are a key concern for modern process industries are likewise considered.

More content on related topics can be found in the complete edition of the ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia.

About ULLMANN'S

ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia is the world's largest reference in applied chemistry, industrial chemistry, and chemical engineering. In its current edition, the Encyclopedia contains more than 30,000 pages, 15,000 tables, 25,000 figures, and innumerable literature sources and cross-references, offering a wealth of comprehensive and well-structured information on all facets of industrial chemistry.

1,100 major articles cover the following main areas:

Agrochemicals
Analytical Techniques
Biochemistry and Biotechnology
Chemical Reactions
Dyes and Pigments
Energy
Environmental Protection and Industrial Safety
Fat, Oil, Food and Feed, Cosmetics
Inorganic Chemicals
Materials
Metals and Alloys
Organic Chemicals
Pharmaceuticals
Polymers and Plastics
Processes and Process Engineering
Renewable Resources
Special Topics

First published in 1914 by Professor Fritz Ullmann in Berlin, the Enzyklopädie der Technischen Chemie (as the German title read) quickly became the standard reference work in industrial chemistry. Generations of chemists have since relied on ULLMANN'S as their prime reference source. Three further German editions followed in 1928–1932, 1951–1970, and in 1972–1984. From 1985 to 1996, the 5^th edition of ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry was the first edition to be published in English rather than German language. So far, two more complete English editions have been published; the 6^th edition of 40 volumes in 2002, and the 7^th edition in 2011, again comprising 40 volumes. In addition, a number of smaller topic-oriented editions have been published.

Since 1997, ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry has also been available in electronic format, first in a CD-ROM edition and, since 2000, in an enhanced online edition. Both electronic editions feature powerful search and navigation functions as well as regular content updates.

Symbols and Units

Symbols and units agree with SI standards (for conversion factors see page XI). The following list gives the most important symbols used in the encyclopedia. Articles with many specific units and symbols have a similar list as front matter.

Symbol	Unit	Physical Quantity
a_B		activity of substance B
A_r		relative atomic mass (atomic weight)
A	m²	area
c_B	mol/m³, mol/L (M)	concentration of substance B
C	C/V	electric capacity
c_p, c_v	J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹	specific heat capacity
d	cm, m	diameter
d		relative density (ϱ/ϱwater)
D	m²/s	diffusion coefficient
D	Gy (=J/kg)	absorbed dose
e	C	elementary charge
E	J	energy
E	V/m	electric field strength
E	V	electromotive force
E_A	J	activation energy
f		activity coefficient
F	C/mol	Faraday constant
F	N	force
g	m/s²	acceleration due to gravity
G	J	Gibbs free energy
h	m	height
ℏ	W·s²	Planck constant
H	J	enthalpy
I	A	electric current
I	cd	luminous intensity
k	(variable)	rate constant of a chemical reaction
k	J/K	Boltzmann constant
K	(variable)	equilibrium constant
l	m	length
m	g, kg, t	mass
M_r		relative molecular mass (molecular weight)
		refractive index (sodium D-line, 20 °C)
n	mol	amount of substance
N_A	mol⁻¹	Avogadro constant (6.023 × 10²³ mol⁻¹)
P	Pa, bar^*	pressure
Q	J	quantity of heat
r	m	radius
R	JK⁻¹ mol⁻¹	gas constant
R	Ω	electric resistance
S	J/K	entropy
t	s, min, h, d, month, a	time
t	°C	temperature
T	K	absolute temperature
u	m/s	velocity
U	V	electric potential
U	J	internal energy
V	m³, L, mL, µL	volume
w		mass fraction
W	J	work
x_B		mole fraction of substance B
Z		proton number, atomic number
α		cubic expansion coefficient
α	Wm⁻²K⁻¹	heat-transfer coefficient (heat-transfer number)
α		degree of dissociation of electrolyte
[α]	10⁻²deg cm²g⁻¹	specific rotation
η	Pa·s	dynamic viscosity
θ	°C	temperature
ϰ		c_p/c_v
λ	Wm⁻¹K⁻¹	thermal conductivity
λ	nm, m	wavelength
µ		chemical potential
ν	Hz, s⁻¹	frequency
ν	m²/s	kinematic viscosity (η/ϱ)
π	Pa	osmotic pressure
ϱ	g/cm³	density
σ	N/m	surface tension
τ	Pa (N/m²)	shear stress
φ		volume fraction
χ	Pa⁻¹ (m²/N)	compressibility
^*The official unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa).

Conversion Factors

SI unit	Non-SI unit	From SI to non-SI multiply by
Mass
kg	pound (avoirdupois)	2.205
kg	ton (long)	9.842 × 10⁻⁴
kg	ton (short)	1.102 × 10⁻³
Volume
m³	cubic inch	6.102 × 10⁴
m³	cubic foot	35.315
m³	gallon (U.S., liquid)	2.642 × 10²
m³	gallon (Imperial)	2.200 × 10²
Temperature
°C	°F	°C × l.8 + 32
Force
N	dyne	1.0 × 10⁵
Energy, Work
J	Btu (int.)	9.480 × 10⁻⁴
J	cal (int.)	2.389 × 10⁻¹
J	eV	6.242 × 10¹⁸
J	erg	1.0 × 10⁷
J	kW·h	2.778 × 10⁻⁷
J	kp·m	1.020 × 10⁻¹
Pressure
MPa	at	10.20
MPa	atm	9.869
MPa	bar	10
kPa	mbar	10
kPa	mm Hg	7.502
kPa	psi	0.145
kPa	torr	7.502

Powers of Ten

E (exa)	10¹⁸	d (deci)	10⁻¹
P (peta)	10¹⁵	c (centi)	10⁻²
T (tera)	10¹²	m (milli)	10⁻³
G (giga)	10⁹	µ (micro)	10⁻⁶
M (mega)	10⁶	n (nano)	10⁻⁹
k (kilo)	10³	p (pico)	10⁻¹²
h (hecto)	10²	f (femto)	10⁻¹⁵
da (deca)	10	a (atto)	10⁻¹⁸