Contents
Cover Title page Copyright page Dedication Preface Chapter 1: Carbon Fibers from Sustainable Resources
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Lignin and Other Sustainable Resources
1.3 Carbon Fibers from Lignin
1.4 Carbon Fibers from Other Sustainable Resources
1.5 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 2: Polylactic Acid Composites and Composite Foams Based on Natural Fibers
2.1 Introduction
2.2 PLA-Natural Fibers Composites
2.3 PLA Composite Foams with Natural Fibers
2.4 Thermal Annealing of PLA Composites
2.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Microcrystalline Cellulose and Related Polymer Composites: Synthesis, Characterization and Properties
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Cellulose: Structure and Sources
3.3 Microcrystalline Cellulose
3.4 Characterization and Properties of Microcrystalline Cellulose
3.5 MCC-Based Composites
3.6 Application of Composite Materials Based on MCC
3.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Tannin-Based Foams: The Innovative Material for Insulation Purposes
4.1 First Tannin Foams and their Characterization
4.2 Formulation and Process Modifications
4.3 Composite Materials: Tannin-Based Panels
4.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Renewable Feedstock Vanillin-Derived Polymer and Composites: Structure Property Relationship
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Vanillin Production
5.3 Some Common Applications of Vanillin
5.4 Vanillin-Derived Polymers
5.5 Vanillin-Based Composites
5.6 Applications of Vanillin-Based Polymers and Composites
5.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Biomass-Based Formaldehyde-Free Bio-Resin for Wood Panel Process
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Market Analysis of Biomass Based Adhesives
6.3 Bio-Based Adhesive Formulations
6.4 Cambond Biomass Based Adhesives
6.5 Bio-composites Based on Cambond Bio-Resin
6.6 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 7: Bio-Derived Adhesives and Matrix Polymers for Composites
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Glycerol
7.3 Tannins
7.4 Lignin
7.5 Polysaccharides
7.6 Proteins
7.7 Oils
7.8 Microorganism-produced Biopolymers
References
Chapter 8: Silk Biocomposites: Structure and Chemistry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Spider Silk Protein
8.3 Bombyx mori Silk
8.4 Silk Biocomposites: Applications
References
Chapter 9: Isolation and Characterisation of Water Soluble Polysaccharide from Colocasia esculenta Tubers
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Materials and Methods
9.3 Results and Discussion
9.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 10: Bio-Based Fillers for Environmentally Friendly Composites
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Bio-Based Fillers/Reinforcements
10.3 Bio-Based Fillers Reinforced Biopolymer Composites
10.4 Applications of Bio-Based Composites
10.5 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Keratin-Based Materials in Biotechnology
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biopolymers
11.3 Classification of Biopolymers
11.4 Occurrence and Physicochemical Properties of Keratin
11.5 Keratin-based Biomaterials
11.6 Bio-composites
11.7 Properties of Bio-composites for Bio-medical Applications
11.8 Biomedical and Biotechnological Applications
11.9 Potential Applications
11.10 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 12: Pineapple Leaf Fiber: A High Potential Reinforcement for Green Rubber and Plastic Composites
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Structure of Pineapple Leaf and Pineapple Leaf Fiber
12.3 Conventional Methods of Fiber Extraction
12.4 The Novel Mechanical Grinding Method
12.5 Potential Applications of PALF as Reinforcement for Polymer Matrix Composites
12.6 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 13: Insights into the Structure of Proteins Adsorbed onto Bioactive Glasses
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Bioactive Glasses as Renewable Materials
13.3 Proteins Structure
13.4 Suitable Methods for Proteins Investigation
13.5 Interaction of Protein with Bioactive Glasses
13.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 14: Effect of Filler Properties on the Antioxidant Response of Thermoplastic Starch Composites
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Starch-Based Nanocomposites
14.3 Regulatory Aspect
14.4 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 15: Preparation and Application of the Composite from Chitosan
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Composites from Chitosan and Natural Polymers
15.3 Composites from Chitosan and Synthetic Polymers
15.4 Composites from Chitosan and Biomacromolecules
15.5 Composites from Chitosan and Inorganic Components
15.6 Composites from Chitosan and Carbon Materials
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16: Overview on Synthesis of Magnetic Bio Char from Discarded Agricultural Biomass
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Magnetic Bio Char
16.3 Synthesis of Magnetic Bio Char
16.4 Characteristics of Magnetic Bio Char
16.5 Applications of Magnetic Bio Char
16.6 Challenges and Future Scope of Magnetic Bio Char
16.7 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 17: Polyurethanes Foams from Bio-Based and Recycled Components
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Experiments
17.3 Results and Discussion
17.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 18: Biodegradable Polymers for Protein and Peptide Therapeutics: Next Generation Delivery Systems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Protein Therapeutics and Their Challenges
18.3 Biodegradable Polymers for Conjugation
18.4 PEGylated Protein Therapeutics
18.5 Glycosylation of Proteins
18.6 Polyglycerols (PG)-Protein Conjugates
18.7 Dendrimer-Protein Conjugates
18.8 HESylation of Proteins
18.9 Dextran-Protein Conjugates
18.10 Dextrin-Protein Conjugates
18.11 Hyaluronic Acid (HA) -Protein Conjugates
18.12 Some Other Polymer-Protein Conjugates
18.13 PASylation
18.14 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Abbreviations
References
Index End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Begin Reading
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1: Transition temperatures (Tg ,. Tm and Tc ) of PLA-natural fiber composites.
Table 2.2: Crystallinity of PLA-natural fiber composites.
Table 2.3: Tensile properties of PLA-natural fiber composites.
Table 2.4: Effect of annealing on the crystallinity of PLA-natural fiber composites.
Table 2.5: Minimum annealing time to enhance the storage modulus of PLA.
Table 2.6: Effect of annealing on the storage modulus of PLA-natural fiber composites.
Table 2.7: Effect of annealing on the mechanical properties of PLA and PLA composites.
Table 3.1: Chemical composition of cellulose-containing materials.
Chapter 3
Table 3.2: Examples of microcrystalline cellulose preparation procedures.
Table 3.3: FTIR peak analysis of MCC (Das et al., 2010; Adel et al., 2011; Mohamad Haafiz et al., 2013a; Trache et al., 2014).
Table 3.4: Degree of polymerization, crystallinity, and thermal decomposition of MCC from different sources.
Table 3.5: Processing methods for MCC-based composites.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1: Chronological summary of the main findings in the study of tannin foams.
Table 4.2: Summary of the tannin foams formulations and its properties. The classic formulation is compared with the maximum values registered in enhanced foams.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1: Sample compositions for preparation of the preliminary particleboard.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1: Shear strengths of the hot-melt adhesive bond lines.
Table 7.2: Most important cellulose derivatives and applications.
Table 7.3: Main aminoacids in soy, maize and pea proteins (Santoni & Pizzo, 2013).
Chapter 8
Table 8.1: Generalised silk mechanical properties compared against synthetic material properties (from Römer & Scheibel, 2008).
Table 8.2: Percentage distribution of amino acids in silk fibroin and sericin (Ude et al., 2014).
Table 8.3: Mechanical properties of silk compounds.
Table 8.4: Thermal transitions in Bombyx mor i silk (Kundu, 2014).
Table 8.5: Chemical properties of B. mor i silk polymers.
Table 8.6: Critical differences between glass and natural fibres that may affect the selection processes for green composites. Here NF refers to natural fibre (Wambua et al., 2003).
Table 8.7: Tensile values of natural and synthetic fibres (Shah et al., 2014).
Chapter 9
Table 9.1: Organoleptic characteristics of purified C. esculent a gum.
Table 9.2: Preliminary phytochemical tests of C. esculenta gum.
Table 9.3: Physicochemical evaluation.
Table 9.4: Experimental considerations for compressibility Index and Hausner Ratio.
Table 9.5: Experimental considerations for Angle of Repose.
Table 9.6: Chemical shifts (in ppm) and the corresponding carbon atoms for 1 H NMR signals of C.esculenta gum.
Table 9.7: Chemical shifts (in ppm) and the corresponding carbon atoms for 13 C NMR signals of C.esculenta gum.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1: Comparison of some specific properties and cost of lignocellulosic fibers and synthetic fibers. Reprinted from Satyanarayana et al., (2009), Copyright 2009, with permission from Elsevier.
Table 10.2: Merit list of the use of lignocellulosic fibers incorporated composites. Reprinted from Satyanarayana et al ., (2009), Copyright 2009, with permission from Elsevier.
Table 10.3: Physical properties of extracted cellulose from various extraction processes.
Table 10.4: Geometrical characteristics of cellulose nanocrystals from various sources: length (L), cross section (D), and aspect ratio (L/D). Reprinted from Kalia et al., (2011), Open Access.
Table 10.5: Mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced biopolymer composites.
Table 10.6: Automotive models, manufacturer and components using natural fiber composites. Reprinted from Faruk et al ., (2014), Copyrights 2014, with permission from Wiley.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1: Properties of some natural fibers and some synthetic fibers (Satyanaraya et al., 1982; Susheel et al., 2009).
Table 12.2: Size of PALF and fiber yield obtained from different extraction methods (modified from Kengkhetkit & Amornsakchai, 2012).
Table 12.3: Composition of ground pineapple leaves (WGL), PALF and NFM.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1: Advantages and disadvantages of starch based films compared to films based on polymers derived from petroleum.
Table 14.2: Mechanisms of action and characteristics of titanium dioxide, zinc oxide and silver nanoparticles. From Dizaj et al. (2014).
Chapter 16
Table 16.1: Various agricultural waste and magnetic medium combinations used for the synthesis of magnetic bio char for different applications.
Table 16.2: Bio char sources, reagents and alkaline medium along with the drying conditions to synthesize magnetic bio char using the chemical precipitation technique.
Table 16.3: Description of the synthesis procedure of magnetic bio char by the heat treatment of impregnated bio char/activated carbon.
Table 16.4: Descriptions of the synthetization of magnetic bio char by encapsulation technique using bio-polymer.
Table 16.5: Saturation magnetization, coercive field and remnant magnetization of magnetic bio char materials.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1: The compositions of synthesized polyols from recycled PET, RO and additives.
Table 17.2: Formulations for rigid PU foams.
Table 17.3: Properties of synthesized polyols.
Table 17.4: Renewable and recycled content in obtained polyols.
Table 17.5: Parameters of rigid PU foam formation process.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1: Commercial polyethylene glycol-protein conjugates (Pasut and Veronese, 2012).
Table 18.2: Clinical status of currently developed polyethylene glycol-protein conjugates.
Table 18.3: Polysialic acid-protein conjugates.
Table 18.4: Polyglycerol-protein, dendrimer-protein and hydroxyl ethyl starch-protein conjugates.
Table 18.5: Dextran-protein and dextrin-protein conjugates.
Table 18.6: Hyaluronic acid-protein conjugates.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1: Condensation and ring opening PLA polymerization.
Figure 2.2: SEM micrographs of PLA composites: (a) agave, (b) coir, (c) pine, and (d) composite of HDPE + agave.
Figure 2.3: DSC thermograms of PLA-wood (maple) composites: (a) neat composite, (b) composite annealed at 105 °C for 2 minutes, and (c) composite annealed at 105 °C for 30 minutes.
Figure 2.4: Storage modulus of PLA-wood composites at different annealing time (95 °C).
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1: Structural levels of organization of cellulose from the sources to the molecules.
Figure 3.2: Schematic diagram of MCC separation during acid hydrolysis.
Figure 3.3: FTIR spectrum of commercial microcrystalline cellulose.
Figure 3.4: SEM graph of commercial microcrystalline cellulose.
Figure 3.5: Synthetic and natural polymers used as matrix for MCC-based composites.
Figure 3.6: Potential applications of MCC-based materials.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1: Classic tannin foam after production and skin removal (left); Tomographic elaboration (right).
Figure 4.2: Formaldehyde-free tannin foam according to Link: Core layer (left); Sandwich panel (right).
Figure 4.3: Polyaniline modified semi-conductive TBF SEM detail (left); IR modified tannin foam surface (right).
Figure 4.4: Microwave produced TBF sandwich panel (left); IR beam produced TBF (right).
Figure 4.5: Industrially produced tannin foams: immediately after pressing (left); HDF sandwich panel (right).
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1: Structure of vanillin.
Figure 5.2: Synthesis vanillin from guaiacol.
Figure 5.3: Natural production of vanillin.
Figure 5.4: Chemical synthesis of vanillin.
Figure 5.5: Synthesis of vanillin.
Figure 5.6: Vanillin based polymers.
Figure 5.7: Poly acetyl polymer.
Figure 5.8: Poly acetyl polymer from vanillin derivatives.
Figure 5.9: Poly ester from acrylates.
Figure 5.10: Poly ester from esterification.
Figure 5.11: Methyl vanillate monomers.
Figure 5.12: Poly ester of vanillin.
Figure 5.13: Poly aldimines in vanillin.
Figure 5.14: Di-vanillin Schiff base polymer.
Figure 5.15: Vanillin cross-linked CS polymers.
Figure 5.16: Polymer of vanillin-anilline.
Figure 5.17: Thio-ene addition polymers.
Figure 5.18: Epoxy polymers.
Scheme 5.1: Synthesis of methacrylated vanillin-glyceroldimethacrylate polymer.
Figure 5.19: Vanillin use in perfume industries.
Figure 5.20: Therauptical formulations of vanillin.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1: Thickness swelling (%) of the preliminary samples of particleboards.
Figure 6.2: Water absorption capacity (WAC) of the preliminary samples of particle boards.
Figure 6.3: Test results of IB of MDF with different DIGLUE/Fibre ratio.
Figure 6.4: SS value of MDF with different DIGLUE/Fibre ratio.
Figure 6.5: MOR Value of MDF with different DIGLUE/Fibre ratio.
Figure 6.6: MOE value of MDF with different DIGLUE/Fibre ratio.
Figure 6.7: TS% of MDF with different DIGLUE/Fibre ratio.
Figure 6.8: Water absorption capacity of MDF with different DIGLUE/Fibre ratio.
Figure 6.9: IB value of MDF with different ALGLUE/Fibre ratio.
Figure 6.10: Straw fibre based bio-composite beams using Cambond bio-resin.
Figure 6.11: Straw Boards produced using Cambond bio-resin.
Figure 6.12: Straw boards for insulation and interior decoration.
Figure 6.13: MDF produced using Cambond Bio-resin.
Figure 6.14: OSB produced using Cambond Bio-resin.
Figure 6.15: Particle boards produced using Cambond Bio-resin.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1: Bioresources for composites technology.
Figure 7.2: Scheme for transesterification of triglycerides with methanol. R – fatty acid residues C12 - C20 .
Figure 7.3: Reactions of conversion of glycerol to cyclic glycerol carbonate (I), branched polyglycerols (II), oligomeric glycerols (III), polyesters (IV) and epichlorohydrin (V).
Figure 7.4: HBP backbone and core structures (Mamiński, 2013).
Figure 7.5: Substructures of condensed tannins.
Figure 7.6: A simplified scheme for tannin autocondensation reaction: I – heterocyclic ring opening, II – secondary condensation.
Figure 7.7: Schematic reaction between tannin and glyoxylated lignin in presence of hexamine.
Figure 7.8: Phenylpropane units present in lignin: 1 – p -coumaryl alcohol, 2 – coniferyl alkohol, 3 – sinapyl alcohol.
Figure 7.9: Intramonomer linkages in lignin and their abundance (Sjöström, 1993).
Figure 7.10: Lignin functionalization reactions.
Figure 7.11: Laccase-mediated cross-linking of lignin model compound (Bohlin et al ., 2005).
Figure 7.12: Starch oxidizing followed by grafting.
Figure 7.13: Common cellulose modifications.
Figure 7.14: Solvolysis of cellulose.
Figure 7.15: Deacetylation of chitin.
Figure 7.16: Structures of the main aminoacids present in soy, maize and pea proteins.
Figure 7.17: Protein cross-linking with glutaraldehyde.
Figure 7.18: Soy protein curing with anhydride-modified polyethyleneimine (Huang & Li, 2008).
Figure 7.19: The chemistry of PAE-protein reactions.
Figure 7.20: General structure of vegetable oil.
Figure 7.21: Pathways for transformation of double bond in oils.
Figure 7.22: Main components of cashew nut shell liquid, castor oil and soybean oil.
Figure 7.23: General structure and nomenclature of the PHAs.
Figure 7.24: Synthetic route to PLA from lactic acid (I) and lactide (II).
Figure 7.25: PLA pellets for thermoforming.
Figure 7.26: Transesterification of PLA with alcohol.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1: Schematic overview of different silk types produced by female orb weaving spiders (Araneae). Each silk type (highlighted in red) is tailored for a specific purpose. (Eisholdt et al. 2011). Reproduced with the permission of Elsevier.
Figure 8.2: Semi-crystalline domains form at interfaces between beta-sheets and amorphous matter. For further information see Sintya & Alam (2016).
Figure 8.3: Bombyx mori cocoons covered with silk fibres.
Figure 8.4: Structural components of silk fibre (Ude et al., 2014). Reproduced by permission of Elsevier.
Figure 8.5: Crystalline (blocks) and amorphous (lines) domains of silk fibroin.
Figure 8.6: Sericin molecule in folded state. Brown regions correspond to α-helices, yellow – β -sheets.
Figure 8.7: Typical FTIR spectra for silk. Reprinted with permission from Hu et al. (2008). Copyright 2008 American Chemical Society.
Figure 8.8: Correlation between elongation and water vapour portion in the polymer (Hirai et al., 2001). Reproduced by permission of Elsevier.
Figure 8.9: Shadowed areas reflect the softened parts of the polymer (Hirai et al., 2001). Reproduced by permission of Elsevier.
Figure 8.10: NIR spectra of wet fibroin film (a) and spectra difference (b) (Mo et al., 2009). Reproduced by permission of Elsevier.
Figure 8.11: Ashby’s chart for engineering and natural materials (Shah, 2014). Reproduced by permission from Elsevier.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1: DSC thermogram of C. esculenta gum.
Figure 9.2: Standard curve of glucose.
Figure 9.3: X-ray diffraction pattern of C.esculenta gum.
Figure 9.4: FTIR spectrum of C.esculenta gum.
Figure 9.5: 1 H NMR spectra of C. esculenta gum, in D2 O.
Figure 9.6: 13 C NMR spectra of C. esculenta gum, in D2 O.
Figure 9.7: Rheogram of shear stress versus shear rate.
Figure 9.8: Rheogram of viscosity versus shear rate.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1: Lignocellulosic (LC) reinforcements (a) Banana; (b) sugarcane bagasse; (c) curaua; (d) flax; (e) hemp; (f) jute; (g) sisal; (h) kenaf. Woven lignocellulosic fabric used for reinforcing polymer composites. (i) Jute fabric; (j) ramie-cotton fabric. (k) jute-cotton fabric. Reprinted from Majeed et al., (2013), Copyright 2013 and Satyanarayana et al., (2009), Copyright 2009, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 10.2: (a) SEM micrograph of bleached cellulose. Reprinted from Pereira et al., (2011), Open Access and (b) AFM image of cellulose nanowhiskers (CNWs). Reprinted from Mtibe et al., (2015a), Copyright 2014, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 10.3: FTIR spectra of (a) bleached and unbleached kenaf fiber. Reprinted from Razak et al., (2014), Open Access and (b) chemically-treated hemp fiber. Reprinted from Kabir et al., (2012), Copyrights 2011, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 10.4: SEM micrograph of the untreated and treated hemp fibers. Reprinted from Kabir et al., (2012), Copyrights 2011, with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 10.5: SEM picture of an (a) untreated and (b) Ophiostoma ulmi treated hemp fiber bundle. Reprinted from Gulati & Sain (2006), Copyrights 2006, with permission from Springer.
Figure 10.6: Schematic representation of chemical treatments: (a) Isolation of chemically purified cellulose (CPC) from sugarcane bagasse; (b) Extraction of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) from chemically purified cellulose (CPC). Reprinted from Kumar et al., (2014), Open Access.
Figure 10.7: Transmission electron micrographs from dilute suspension of cellulose nanocrystals from: (a) ramie, (b) bacterial, (c) sisal, (d) microcrystalline cellulose, (e) sugar beet pulp, (f) tunicin, (g) wheat straw, and (h) cotton. Reprinted from Kalia et al., (2011), Open Access.
Figure 10.8: Number of publications in the area of cellulose nanocomposites. Reprinted from Lee et al., (2014), Open Access.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1: Illustrates a classical summary of biopolymers (Reproduced from Iqbal, 2015).
Figure 11.2: Schematic diagram of different components of cellulose and keratin; (a) polypeptide single unit; (b) amino acid sequence; (c) α -helix, and (d) β -Sheets conformations of keratin.
Figure 11.3: Atypical feather (Reproduced from Iqbal, 2015).
Figure 11.4: Development and novel characteristics of phenol-g -keratin-EC-based bio-composites (Reproduced from Iqbal et al., 2015a).
Figure 11.5: Concept of “sustainability” (Reproduced from Iqbal, 2015).
Figure 11.6: A schematic representation of proposed mechanism of soil burial degradation cycle (Reproduced from Iqbal et al., 2015a).
Figure 11.7: Use of biopolymers for various biomedical and biotechnological based applications.
Figure 11.8: A schematic description of intrapocket antibiotic-eluting human hair keratin-based film for periodontal tissue regeneration (Reproduced from Lee et al., 2015 with permission).
Figure 11.9: A schematic of the strategy to introduce HA-keratin nanocomposites into polymer nanofibers by the electrospinning process. (1) HA-keratin nanocomposites were synthesized by adding calcium and phosphate ions into a keratin solution; (2) HA-keratin was dispersed and washed by ethanol several times to replace water completely; (3) the HA-keratin-ethanol slurry was collected by centrifugation; (4) HA-keratin-ethanol was dispersed into the polymer solution homogeneously; (5) and (6) polymer solution was electrospun into polymer nanofibers with HA-keratin nanocomposites (Reproduced from Lee et al., 2013 with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry).
Figure 11.10: Conceptual diagram of a biosensor. The interaction of the analyte with the biological element is designed to produce an effect measured by the physical element, which converts the information into measurable values, for example electrical signals (adapted with modification from Kubik et al., 2005).
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1: A typical pineapple field in Uthai Thani province, Central Thailand (top); After the last crop, farmer retrieves mature suckers, prunes and keeps them for planting (middle); The rest of the field are chopped down and sun-dried (bottom).
Figure 12.2: Optical micrograph of transverse section of pineapple leaf showing fibrovascular bundles (A) and mesophyll fiber bundles (B). High magnification images of regions A and B obtained with a scanning electron microscope are shown at lower left corner.
Figure 12.3: Operation principle of a decorticating machine.
Figure 12.4: Schematic diagram of the new process for short PALF production.
Figure 12.5: Loose PALF (top); nonwoven mat (middle); close-up appearance of nonwoven mats of PALF (bottom left) and WGL (bottom right).
Figure 12.6: Broken end of hand scraped PALF (left) and end of hand scraped PALF after being washed with 10% NaOH solution (right).
Figure 12.7: Scanning electron micrograph of PALF obtained by grinding method.
Figure 12.8: Optical image of NFM.
Figure 12.9: Formation of uniaxially aligned PALF reinforced polymer prepreg on a two-roll mill.
Figure 12.10: Stress-strain curves of unfilled NBR (—), PALF-NBR (○), PALF/Silica-NBR (♦) (modified from Wisittanawat et al., 2014b).
Figure 12.11: Stress-strain curves of PALF/CB-NBR (modified from Prukkaewkanjana et al., 2015).
Figure 12.12: (a) Flexural modulus (+) and 1% secant modulus (Δ) of PALF-PP composites; (b) Flexural strength (+), tensile strength (Δ) and HDT (○) of PALF-PP composites (modified from Kengkhetkit & Amornsakchai, 2014).
Figure 12.13: Radar plot of performance of PALF-PP, WGL-PP and NFM-PP composites (modified from Kengkhetkit & Amornsakchai, 2014).
Figure 12.14: Test products injected from different composites: Heavy duty carrying handle from PALF-PP (top); general plastic utensils (middle) and makeup brush handles (bottom) from NFM-PP composites.
Figure 12.15: Fabrication of a boat and table-chair set using WGL nonwoven mat in combination with glass chopped strand mat.
Figure 12.16: Preparation of semi-finished mat from PALF nonwoven mat and water based acrylic resin (Acrodur® ) using brushing technique.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1: Reaction sequence of bioactive glasses when are in contact with biological fluids.
Figure 13.2: The well-known ion composition of SBF versus Human blood plasma (a) together with schematic illustration of apatite layer formation on bioactive glasses in body fluids (b).
Figure 13.3: The peptide formation by linking two amino acids.
Figure 13.4: Secondary structure of proteins: α -helix (a) and β -sheet (b).
Figure 13.5: Quaternary structures of bovine serum albumin. The two monomers are coloured in red and blue, respectively. The crystal structure of bovine serum albumin dimer obtained by X-ray crystallography (4F5S from Protein Data Bank).
Figure 13.6: FT-IR spectra of the BSA (a); optical image of the sample area (b) and distribution of the 1650 cm–1 vibrational band (c). The right side image represents the IR band intensity. Note that the images were recorded in the same area.
Figure 13.7: FTIR spectra of BSA, fibrinogen and collagen.
Figure 13.8: Deconvolution of the amide I (1700–1600 cm–1 ) absorption band of the lyophilized fibrinogen (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2015a) with permission of John Wiley & Sons).
Figure 13.9: Distribution of secondary structure in lyophilized fibrinogen.
Figure 13.10: FT-IR spectra of the 60P2 O5 ·20CaO·(20-x)Na2 O·Ag2 O glass samples after BSA adsorption (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2014) with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry).
Figure 13.11: SEM images of xMoO3 ·(100-x)[2-SiO2 ·CaO·0.3P2 O5 ] samples with different MoO3 content, before and after BSA adsorption, and SBF immersion: 0 mol% (a), 3 mol% (b), 5 mol% (c) and 10 mol% (d) (Reproduced from Reference (Ponta et al., 2014) with permission of John Wiley & Sons).
Figure 13.12: SEM images of 60SiO2 ·32CaO·8P2 O5 samples before (a), after surface functionalization with APTS (b), after fibrinogen adsorption on bioactive glass (c), and after fibrinogen adsorption on the functionalized sample (d) (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2015a) with permission of John Wiley & Sons).
Figure 13.13: EDX spectra of 60SiO2 –32CaO·8P2 O5 samples before surface modification (a), after surface modification with APTS (b), after fibrinogen adsorption on bioactive glass sample (c) and after fibrinogen adsorption on functionalized sample (d) (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2015a) with permission of John Wiley & Sons).
Figure 13.14: SEM images of the bioactive glass without GA (a) and with GA (b), after immersion in protein solution (Reproduced from (Gruian et al ., 2012b) with permission of Elsevier).
Figure 13.15: SEM images of bioactive glass with GA (b), after immersion in protein solution with 10 mM NaCl (a) and 500 mM NaCl (b) (Reproduced from (Gruian et al ., 2012b) with permission of Elsevier).
Figure 13.16: Surface morphology of protein-loaded bioactive glass substrates with different silver content (shown in the top of each image), according to SEM images (scale bars=500 nm) (Reprinted with permission from Gruian, C., et al. J Phys Chem B , 2013. 117(51): p. 16558–64. Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society).
Figure 13.17: Distribution of (a) 1050 cm–1 PO4 3- and (b) 1550 cm–1 amide II vibrational bands recorded after the fibrinogen attachment on the glass surface and immersion in SBF for 3 days. The right side image represents the IR band intensity. Note that the images were recorded from the same area (Reproduced from (Magyari et al., 2012) with permission of Elsevier).
Figure 13.18: The 564 cm–1 /467 cm–1 intensity ratio of FT-IR spectra of 60SiO2 ·32CaO·8P2 O5 sample (a), surface functionalized with APTS (b), fibrinogen adsorbed (c), and surface modified sample (d) after immersion in SBF and SBFA for different days (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2015a) with permission of John Wiley & Sons).
Figure 13.19: SEM images of 60SiO2 ·32CaO-8P2 O5 fibrinogen adsorbed sample (first column) and surface modified samples with APTS and fibrinogen (second column), after immersion in SBF with albumin (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2015a) with permission of John Wiley & Sons).
Figure 13.20: Deconvolution of the amide I (1700–1600 cm–1 ) absorption band of the lyophilized BSA, before and after its adsorption on the bioactive 60P2 O5 ·20CaO·(20-x)Na2 O·xAg2 O glass samples surface (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2014) with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry).
Figure 13.21: Distribution of secondary structure in lyophilized and adsorbed BSA onto 60P2 O5 ·20CaO·(20-x)Na2 O·xAg2 O glass samples’ surface (Reproduced from Reference (Magyari et al., 2014) with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry).
Figure 13.22: Deconvolution of the amide I (1700–1600 cm–1 ) absorption band of lyophilized fibrinogen before (a) and after adsorption on the 45SiO2 ·24.5CaO·6P2 O5 ·24.5K2 O bioactive glass surface (b). Distribution of α -helix, β -sheet and β -turn secondary structures in lyophilized and adsorbed fibrinogen onto glass sample (c).
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1: Cassava starch active films containing mango and yerba mate extracts tested as packaging for palm oil. From Reis et al., (2015).
Figure 14.2: Illustration of the characteristics of encapsulated polyphenolic capsules produced by various encapsulation processes. From Fang & Bhandari (2010).
Figure 14.3: SEM micrograph of the fracture surfaces of starch/ZnO-NP composites with different concentration of filler: (a) 0 wt.%, (b) 1 wt.%, and (c) 3 wt.%. From Ma et al. (2009).
Figure 14.4: Photograph of Luria-Bertani medium plates containing different concentrations of Ag-NP: (a) 0, (b) 10, (c) 20, and (d) 50 μ g cm–3 . From Sondi & Salopek-Sondi (2004).
Figure 14.5: SEM image of the fracture surfaces of dialdehyde starch/Ag-NP nanocomposite. From Khachatryan et al. (2013).
Figure 14.6: Schematic diagram of nano zinc oxide-sodium alginate antibacterial cellulose fibers. From Varaprasad et al. (2016).
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1: The structure of chitosan.
Figure 15.2: Formation of the dual-network hydrogel from chitosan and chondroitin sulfate (Fajardo et al ., 2013).
Figure 15.3: The formation and the oil-in-water interfacial behavior of HA/CS complex colloidal particles (Zhao et al., 2015).
Figure 15.4: Scheme of the reaction showing time dependent chain length of grafted species and subsequent cross-linking between CS molecules at a higher degree of substitution (Mahanta et al., 2015).
Figure 15.5: Illustration of super hydroxide-conducting pathway in the polymer electrolyte consisting of Q-PVA and Q-chitosan, which is synthesized to enhance anion hopping and diffusion property (Liao et al., 2015).
Figure 15.6: The synthesis routes of CS-g-Cyclen (1), CS-g-PC (2), and PC-g(6)-CS- g(2)-Cyclen (3) (Li et al., 2015).
Figure 15.7: The pattern of liposome-in-hydrogel system (Billard et al ., 2015).
Figure 15.8: Cross-linked chitosan/liposome hybrid system (Caddeo et al., 2016).
Figure 15.9: The mechanism of reaction between chitosan and bioglass, (a) hydrolysis and condensation of tetraethyl orthosilicate, (b) functionalization of chitosan with GPTMS, (c) formation of bioglasschitosan hybrid (Ravarian et al ., 2015).
Figure 15.10: Construction of the CS/BG 3D porous scaffold; (a) CS fibres used as original materials; (b) preparation of CS fibre 3D porous scaffold by needle-punching; (c) BG powders; (d) formation of a BG/ethanol suspension by addition of BG powders into ethanol; (e) preparation of a CS/BG 3D porous scaffold by dip-coating; (f) CS/BG 3D porous scaffold; and (g) a cross-section of the CS/BG fibre (Yang et al., 2014).
Figure 15.11: Immobilization of lipase on the Fe3 O4 @chitosan nanoparticles (Wang et al., 2015).
Figure 15.12: The process of the surface-deposition and cross-linking method (Liu et al., 2005).
Figure 15.13: The process for synthesis of MWCNT-CS-FA NP hybrids (Liu et al., 2013).
Figure 15.14: Scheme of preparation of the composite actuator (Lu & Chen, 2010).
Figure 15.15: (a) Scheme for possible microstructure present in GO/chitosan nanocomposites; (b) formation of hydrogen bonds between GO sheets and chitosan chains (Pan et al., 2011).
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1: Synthesis of magnetic bio char by pyrolysis technique using agricultural waste.
Figure 16.2: Schematic representation of magnetic bio char synthesis from agricultural waste by the chemical precipitation technique (Wang et al., 2014) with permission of Elsevier).
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1: Synthesis of RO/TEA polyol.
Figure 17.2: Possible structure of polyols obtained from depolymerized PET and transesterified RO, containing fragments of ADA and GL.
Figure 17.3: FTIR spectra of obtained polyols.
Figure 17.4: FTIR spectra of -OH (a) and -CH2 (b) groups absorption bands for polyols; dashed line – GL/ADA, solid line – GL/ADA-RO.
Figure 17.5: FTIR-ATR spectra of aromatic group absorption band for polyols.
Figure 17.6: Possible structure of prepared PU, containing fragments of recycled PET and biobased RO.
Figure 17.7: OM images of PU rigid foams prepared using polyols (a) ADA/GL 0/1 and (b) ADA/GLA-RO 0/1.
Figure 17.8: Cell size of PU rigid foams.
Figure 17.9: Water absorption of PU rigid foams; dashed line – GL/ADA, solid line – GL/ADA-RO.
Figure 17.10: Mechanical properties of PU rigid foams.
Figure 17.11: FTIR-ATR spectra of PU rigid foams.
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Scrivener Publishing
Publishers at Scrivener
Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials
Edited by Vijay Kumar Thakur, Manju Kumari Thakur and Michael R. Kessler
Volume 1: Structure and Chemistry ISBN: 978-1-119-22362-7
Volume 2: Design and Manufacturing ISBN: 978-1-119-22365-8
Volume 3: Physico-Chemical and Mechanical Characterization ISBN: 978-1-119-22366-5
Volume 4: Functionalization ISBN: 978-1-119-22367-2
Volume 5: Biodegradable Materials ISBN: 978-1-119-22379-5
Volume 6: Polymeric Composites ISBN: 978-1-119-22380-1
Volume 7: Nanocomposites: Science and Fundamentals ISBN: 978-1-119-22381-8
Volume 8: Nanocomposites: Advanced Applications ISBN: 978-1-119-22383-2
8-volume set ISBN 978-1-119-22436-5
Structure and Chemistry
Edited by
Vijay Kumar Thakur
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Vijay Kumar Thakur
The concept of green chemistry and sustainable development policy impose on industry and technology to switch raw material base from the petroleum to renewable resources. Remarkable attention has been paid to the environmental friendly, green and sustainable materials for a number of applications during the last few years. Indeed the rapidly diminishing global petroleum resources, along with awareness of global environmental problems, have promoted the way to switch towards renewable resources based materials. In this regards, bio-based renewable materials can form the basis for variety of eco-efficient, sustainable products that can capture and compete markets presently dominated by products based solely on petroleum based raw materials. The nature provides a wide range of the raw materials that can be converted into a polymeric matrix/adhesive/reinforcement applicable in composites formulation. Different kinds of polymers (renewable/nonrenewable) and polymer composite materials have been emerging rapidly as the prospective substitute to the ceramic or metal materials, due to their advantages over conventional materials. In brief, polymers are macromolecular groups collectively recognized as polymers due to the presence of repeating blocks of covalently linked atomic arrangement in the formation of these molecules. The repetitive atomic arrangements forming the macromolecules by forming covalent links are the building block or constituent monomers. As the covalent bond formation between monomer units is the essence of polymer formation, polymers are organic or carbon compounds of either biological or synthetic origin. The phenomenon or process of polymerization enables to create diverse forms of macromolecules with varied structural and functional properties and applications. On the other hand, composite materials, or composites, are one of the main improvements in material technology in recent years. In the materials science field, a composite is a multi-phase material consisting of two or more physically distinct components, a matrix (or a continuous phase) and at least one dispersed (filler or reinforcement) phase. The dispersed phase, responsible for enhancing one or more properties of matrix, can be categorized according to particle dimensions that comprise platelet, ellipsoids, spheres and fibers. These particles can be inorganic or organic origin and possess rigid or flexible properties.
The most important resources for renewable raw materials originate from nature such as wood, starch, proteins and oils from plants. Therefore, renewable raw materials lead to the benefit of processing in industries owing to the short period of replenishment cycle resulting in the continuous flow production. Moreover, the production cost can be reduced by using natural raw materials instead of chemical raw materials. The waste and residues from agriculture and industry have been also used as an alternative renewable resources for producing energy and raw materials such as chemicals, cellulose, carbon and silica. For polymer composites applications, an intensifying focus has been directed toward the use of renewable materials. Bio-based polymers are one of the most attractive candidates
Significant research efforts all around the globe are continuing to explore and improve the properties of renewable polymers based materials. Researchers are collectively focusing their efforts to use the inherent advantages of renewable polymers for miscellaneous applications. To ensure a sustainable future, the use of bio-based materials containing a high content of derivatives from renewable biomass is the best solution.
This volume of the book series “Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials” is solely focused on the “Structure and Chemistry” of renewable materials. Some of the important topics include but not limited to: carbon fibers from sustainable resources; polylactic acid composites and composite foams based on natural fibres; composites materials from other than cellulosic resources; microcrystalline cellulose and related polymer composites; Tannin based foam; Renewable feedstock vanillin derived polymer and composites; silk biocomposites; bio-derived adhesives and matrix polymers; biomass based formaldehyde-free bio-resin; isolation and characterisation of water soluble polysaccharide; bio-based fillers; keratin based materials in biotechnology; structure of proteins adsorbed onto bioactive glasses for sustainable composite; effect of filler properties on the antioxidant response of starch composites; composite of chitosan and its derivate; magnetic biochar from discarded agricultural biomass; biodegradable polymers for protein and peptide conjugation; polyurethanes and polyurethane composites from bio-based/recycled components.
Several critical issues and suggestions for future work are comprehensively discussed in this volume with the hope that the book will provide a deep insight into the state-of-art of “Structure and Chemistry” of the renewable materials. We would like to thank the Publisher and Martin Scrivener for the invaluable help in the organisation of the editing process. Finally, we would like to thank our parents for their continuous encouragement and support.
Vijay Kumar Thakur, Ph.D. University of Cranfield, U.K.
Manju Kumari Thakur, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D. Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India
Michael R. Kessler, Ph.D., P.E. Washington State University, U.S.A.
