<p>Preface xi<br /><i>Julien Bachmann</i><br /><br />The Past of Energy Conversion xi<br /><br />The Future of Energy Conversion xi<br /><br />Technical Ingredients Needed xiii<br /><br />Scope of This Book xiv<br /><br />Photovoltaics: Strategies, Length Scales, and ALD xv<br /><br />Electrochemical Energy Storage: Principles, Chemistries, and ALD xvii<br /><br />Other Energy Conversion Strategies Based on Interfaces xix<br /><br />References xx<br /><br />List of Contributors xxiii<br /><br /><b>Part I Introduction to Atomic Layer Deposition 1</b><br /><b><br />1 Basics of Atomic Layer Deposition: Growth Characteristics and Conformality 3</b><br /><i>Jolien Dendooven and Christophe Detavernier</i><br /><br />1.1 Atomic Layer Deposition 3<br /><br />1.1.1 Principle of ALD 3<br /><br />1.1.2 ALD Growth Characteristics – Linearity, Saturation, and ALD Window 5<br /><br />1.1.3 Plasma-Enhanced ALD 8<br /><br />1.2 In Situ Characterization for Studying ALD Processes 11<br /><br />1.2.1 Quartz Crystal Microbalance 12<br /><br />1.2.2 Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry (QMS) 13<br /><br />1.2.3 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 14<br /><br />1.2.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 15<br /><br />1.2.5 Optical Emission Spectroscopy 15<br /><br />1.2.6 Other In Situ Techniques 16<br /><br />1.3 Conformality of ALD Processes 16<br /><br />1.3.1 Quantifying the Conformality of ALD Processes 17<br /><br />1.3.2 Modeling the Conformality of ALD 21<br /><br />1.3.3 The Conformality of Plasma-Enhanced ALD 24<br /><br />1.3.4 Conformal Coating of Nanoporous Materials 29<br /><br />References 34<br /><br /><b>Part II Atomic Layer Deposition in Photovoltaic Devices 41</b><br /><br /><b>2 Atomic Layer Deposition for High-Efficiency Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 43</b><br /><i>Bart Macco, Bas W. H. van de Loo, and Wilhelmus M. M. Kessels</i><br /><br />2.1 Introduction to High-Efficiency Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 43<br /><br />2.1.1 ALD for Si Homojunction Solar Cells 44<br /><br />2.1.2 ALD for Si Heterojunction Solar Cells 46<br /><br />2.1.3 Novel Passivating Contacts and ALD 47<br /><br />2.1.4 Outline of this Chapter 47<br /><br />2.2 Nanolayers for Surface Passivation of Si Homojunction Solar Cells 48<br /><br />2.2.1 Basics of Surface Passivation 48<br /><br />2.2.2 Surface Passivation by ALD Al2O3 54<br /><br />2.2.3 ALD in Solar Cell Manufacturing 59<br /><br />2.2.4 New Developments for ALD Passivation Schemes 63<br /><br />2.3 Transparent Conductive Oxides for Si Heterojunction Solar Cells 68<br /><br />2.3.1 Basics of TCOs in SHJ Solar Cells 69<br /><br />2.3.2 ALD of Transparent Conductive Oxides 74<br /><br />2.3.3 High-Volume Manufacturing of ALD TCOs 79<br /><br />2.4 Prospects for ALD in Passivating Contacts 80<br /><br />2.4.1 Basics of Passivating Contacts 80<br /><br />2.4.2 ALD for Passivating Contacts 86<br /><br />2.5 Conclusions and Outlook 89<br /><br />References 90<br /><br /><b>3 ALD for Light Absorption 101</b><br /><i>Alex Martinson</i><br /><br />3.1 Introduction to Solar Light Absorption 101<br /><br />3.2 Why ALD for Solar Light Absorbers? 104<br /><br />3.2.1 Uniformity and Precision of Large-Area Coatings 104<br /><br />3.2.2 Orthogonalizing Light Harvesting and Charge Extraction 105<br /><br />3.2.3 Pinhole-Free Ultrathin Films, ETA Cells 107<br /><br />3.2.4 Chemical Control of Stoichiometry and Doping 107<br /><br />3.2.5 Low-Temperature Epitaxy 109<br /><br />3.3 ALD Processes for Visible and NIR Light Absorbers 109<br /><br />3.3.1 ALD Metal Oxides for Light Absorption 111<br /><br />3.3.2 ALD Metal Chalcogenides for Light Absorption 111<br /><br />3.3.3 Other ALD Materials for Light Absorption 115<br /><br />3.4 Prospects and Future Challenges 115<br /><br />References 115<br /><br /><b>4 Atomic Layer Deposition for Surface and Interface Engineering in Nanostructured Photovoltaic Devices 119</b><br /><i>Carlos Guerra-Nuñez, Hyung Gyu Park, and Ivo Utke</i><br /><br />4.1 Introduction 119<br /><br />4.2 ALD for Improved Nanostructured Solar Cells 120<br /><br />4.2.1 Compact Layer: The TCO/Metal Oxide Interface 121<br /><br />4.2.2 Blocking Layer: The Metal Oxide/Absorber Interface 126<br /><br />4.2.3 Surface Passivation and Absorber Stabilization: The Absorber/HTM Interface 130<br /><br />4.2.4 Atomic Layer Deposition on Quantum Dots 132<br /><br />4.2.5 ALD on Large-Surface-Area Current Collectors: Compact Blocking Layers 134<br /><br />4.3 ALD for Photoelectrochemical Devices for Water Splitting 138<br /><br />4.4 Prospects and Conclusions 142<br /><br />References 143<br /><br /><b>Part III ALD toward Electrochemical Energy Storage 149</b><br /><br /><b>5 Atomic Layer Deposition of Electrocatalysts for Use in Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers 151</b><br /><i>Lifeng Liu</i><br /><br />5.1 Introduction 151<br /><br />5.2 ALD of Pt-Group Metal and Alloy Electrocatalysts 153<br /><br />5.2.1 ALD of Pt Electrocatalysts 154<br /><br />5.2.2 ALD of Pd Electrocatalysts 168<br /><br />5.2.3 ALD of Pt-Based Alloy and Core/Shell Nanoparticle Electrocatalysts 169<br /><br />5.3 ALD of Transition Metal Oxide Electrocatalysts 174<br /><br />5.4 Summary and Outlook 175<br /><br />Acknowledgment 178<br /><br />References 178<br /><br /><b>6 Atomic Layer Deposition for Thin-Film Lithium-Ion Batteries 183</b><br /><i>Ola Nilsen, Knut B. Gandrud, Amund Ruud, and Helmer Fjellvåg</i><br /><br />6.1 Introduction 183<br /><br />6.2 Coated Powder Battery Materials by ALD 184<br /><br />6.3 Li Chemistry for ALD 186<br /><br />6.4 Thin-Film Batteries 187<br /><br />6.5 ALD for Solid-State Electrolytes 189<br /><br />6.5.1 Li2CO3 189<br /><br />6.5.2 Li–La–O 189<br /><br />6.5.3 LLT 189<br /><br />6.5.4 Li–Al–O (LiAlO2) 190<br /><br />6.5.5 LixSiyOz 191<br /><br />6.5.6 Li–Al–Si–O 191<br /><br />6.5.7 LiNbO3 192<br /><br />6.5.8 LiTaO3 192<br /><br />6.5.9 Li3PO4 192<br /><br />6.5.10 Li3N 192<br /><br />6.5.11 LiPON 193<br /><br />6.5.12 LiF 194<br /><br />6.6 ALD for Cathode Materials 194<br /><br />6.6.1 V2O5 194<br /><br />6.6.2 LiCoO2 195<br /><br />6.6.3 MnOx/Li2Mn2O4/LiMn2O4 196<br /><br />6.6.4 Subsequent Lithiation 196<br /><br />6.6.5 LiFePO4 197<br /><br />6.6.6 Sulfides 198<br /><br />6.7 ALD for Anode Materials 198<br /><br />6.8 Outlook 199<br /><br />Acknowledgments 204<br /><br />References 204<br /><br /><b>7 ALD-Processed Oxides for High-Temperature Fuel Cells 209</b><br /><i>Michel Cassir, Arturo Meléndez-Ceballos, Marie-Hélène Chavanne, Dorra Dallel, and Armelle Ringuedé</i><br /><br />7.1 Brief Description of High-Temperature Fuel Cells 209<br /><br />7.1.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 209<br /><br />7.1.2 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells 210<br /><br />7.2 Thin Layers in SOFC and MCFC Devices 210<br /><br />7.2.1 General Features 210<br /><br />7.2.2 Interest of ALD 212<br /><br />7.3 ALD for SOFC Materials 213<br /><br />7.3.1 Electrolytes and Interfaces 213<br /><br />7.3.2 Electrodes and Current Collectors 215<br /><br />7.4 Coatings for MCFC Cathodes and Bipolar Plates 216<br /><br />7.5 Conclusion and Emerging Topics 218<br /><br />References 218<br /><br /><b>Part IV ALD in Photoelectrochemical and Thermoelectric Energy Conversion 223</b><br /><b><br />8 ALD for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 225</b><br /><i>Lionel Santinacci</i><br /><br />8.1 Introduction 225<br /><br />8.2 Photoelectrochemical Cell: Principle, Materials, and Improvements 227<br /><br />8.2.1 Principle of the PEC 227<br /><br />8.2.2 Photoelectrode Materials 228<br /><br />8.2.3 Geometry of the Photoelectrodes: Micro- and Nanostructuring 230<br /><br />8.2.4 Coating and Functionalization of the Photoelectrodes 233<br /><br />8.3 Interest of ALD for PEC 233<br /><br />8.3.1 Synthesis of Electrode Materials 234<br /><br />8.3.2 Nanostructured Photoelectrodes 235<br /><br />8.3.3 Catalyst Deposition 239<br /><br />8.3.4 Passivation and Modification of the Junction 240<br /><br />8.3.5 Photocorrosion Protection 244<br /><br />8.4 Conclusion and Outlook 247<br /><br />References 247<br /><br /><b>9 Atomic Layer Deposition of Thermoelectric Materials 259</b><br /><i>Maarit Karppinen and Antti J. Karttunen</i><br /><br />9.1 Introduction 259<br /><br />9.1.1 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion and Cooling 259<br /><br />9.1.2 Designing and Optimizing Thermoelectric Materials 260<br /><br />9.1.3 Thin-Film Thermoelectric Devices 262<br /><br />9.2 ALD Processes for Thermoelectrics 263<br /><br />9.2.1 Thermoelectric Oxide Thin Films 263<br /><br />9.2.2 Thermoelectric Selenide and Telluride Thin Films 266<br /><br />9.3 Superlattices for Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance 266<br /><br />9.4 Prospects and Future Challenges 271<br /><br />References 272<br /><br />Index 275</p>