<p>Preface xix</p> <p>Acknowledgments xxi</p> <p>Textbook Structure and Suggested Teaching Curriculum xxii</p> <p>About the Companion Web Site xxiv</p> <p><b>Part 1 Vehicles and Energy Sources 1</b></p> <p><b>1 Electromobility and the Environment 3</b></p> <p>1.1 A Brief History of the Electric Powertrain 4</p> <p>1.1.1 Part I – The Birth of the Electric Car 4</p> <p>1.1.2 Part II – The Resurgent Electric Powertrain 5</p> <p>1.1.3 Part III – Success at Last for the Electric Powertrain 6</p> <p>1.2 Energy Sources for Propulsion and Emissions 10</p> <p>1.2.1 Carbon Emissions from Fuels 12</p> <p>1.2.2 Greenhouse Gases and Pollutants 13</p> <p>1.3 The Advent of Regulations 15</p> <p>1.3.1 Regulatory Considerations and Emissions Trends 17</p> <p>1.3.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Regulations 18</p> <p>1.4 Drive Cycles 19</p> <p>1.4.1 EPA Drive Cycles 19</p> <p>1.5 BEV Fuel Consumption, Range, and mpge 24</p> <p>1.6 Carbon Emissions for Conventional and Electric Powertrains 25</p> <p>1.6.1 Well-to-Wheel and Cradle-to-Grave Emissions 27</p> <p>1.6.2 Emissions due to the Electrical Grid 28</p> <p>1.7 An Overview of Conventional, Battery, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Electric Systems 29</p> <p>1.7.1 Conventional IC Engine Vehicle 30</p> <p>1.7.2 BEVs 30</p> <p>1.7.3 HEVs 31</p> <p>1.7.4 FCEV 33</p> <p>1.7.5 A Comparison by Efficiency of Conventional, Hybrid, Battery, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 34</p> <p>1.7.6 A Case Study Comparison of Conventional, Hybrid, Battery, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 35</p> <p>1.8 A Comparison of Automotive and Other Transportation Technologies 36</p> <p>References 37</p> <p>Further Reading 38</p> <p>Problems 38</p> <p>Assignments 39</p> <p><b>2 Vehicle Dynamics 40</b></p> <p>2.1 Vehicle Load Forces 40</p> <p>2.1.1 Basic Power, Energy, and Speed Relationships 41</p> <p>2.1.2 Aerodynamic Drag 42</p> <p>2.1.3 Rolling Resistance 45</p> <p>2.1.4 Vehicle Road-Load Coefficients from EPA Coast-Down Testing 46</p> <p>2.1.5 Battery Electric Vehicle Range at Constant Speed 49</p> <p>2.1.6 Gradability 51</p> <p>2.2 Vehicle Acceleration 52</p> <p>2.2.1 Regenerative Braking of the Vehicle 54</p> <p>2.2.2 Traction Motor Characteristics 54</p> <p>2.2.3 Acceleration of the Vehicle 57</p> <p>2.3 Simple Drive Cycle for Vehicle Comparisons 60</p> <p>References 62</p> <p>Further Reading 62</p> <p>Problems 62</p> <p>Sample MATLAB Code 63</p> <p>Assignment: Modeling of a BEV 66</p> <p><b>3 Batteries 68</b></p> <p>3.1 Introduction to Batteries 68</p> <p>3.1.1 Batteries Types and Battery Packs 68</p> <p>3.1.2 Basic Battery Operation 73</p> <p>3.1.3 Basic Electrochemistry 74</p> <p>3.1.4 Units of Battery Energy Storage 76</p> <p>3.1.5 Capacity Rate 77</p> <p>3.1.6 Battery Parameters and Comparisons 79</p> <p>3.2 Lifetime and Sizing Considerations 81</p> <p>3.2.1 Examples of Battery Sizing 84</p> <p>3.2.2 Battery Pack Discharge Curves and Aging 86</p> <p>3.3 Battery Charging, Protection, and Management Systems 88</p> <p>3.3.1 Battery Charging 88</p> <p>3.3.2 Battery Failure and Protection 88</p> <p>3.3.3 Battery Management System 89</p> <p>3.4 Battery Models 90</p> <p>3.4.1 A Simple Novel Curve Fit Model for BEV Batteries 92</p> <p>3.4.2 Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Efficiency of Battery Pack 95</p> <p>3.4.3 A Simple Curve-Fit Model for HEV Batteries 96</p> <p>3.4.4 Charging 97</p> <p>3.4.5 Determining the Cell/Pack Voltage for a Given Output\Input Power 99</p> <p>3.4.6 Cell Energy and Discharge Rate 100</p> <p>3.5 Example: The Fuel Economy of a BEV Vehicle with a Fixed Gear Ratio 102</p> <p>References 105</p> <p>Further Reading 106</p> <p>Problems 106</p> <p>Appendix: A Simplified Curve-Fit Model for BEV Batteries 108</p> <p><b>4 Fuel Cells 111</b></p> <p>4.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells 111</p> <p>4.1.1 Fuel Cell Vehicle Emissions and Upstream Emissions 113</p> <p>4.1.2 Hydrogen Safety Factors 113</p> <p>4.2 Basic Operation 114</p> <p>4.2.1 Fuel Cell Model and Cell Voltage 116</p> <p>4.2.2 Power and Efficiency of Fuel Cell and Fuel Cell Power Plant System 118</p> <p>4.2.3 Fuel Cell Characteristic Curves 119</p> <p>4.3 Sizing the Fuel Cell Plant 120</p> <p>4.3.1 Example: Sizing a Fuel Cell 121</p> <p>4.3.2 Toyota Mirai 121</p> <p>4.3.3 Balance of Plant 121</p> <p>4.3.4 Boost DC-DC Converter 122</p> <p>4.4 Fuel Cell Aging 122</p> <p>4.5 Example: Sizing Fuel Cell System for Heavy Goods Tractor–Trailer Combination 124</p> <p>4.6 Example: Fuel Economy of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 125</p> <p>References 129</p> <p>Problems 129</p> <p>Assignments 130</p> <p><b>5 Conventional and Hybrid Powertrains 131</b></p> <p>5.1 Introduction to HEVs 131</p> <p>5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption 134</p> <p>5.2.1 Example: Energy Consumption, Power Output, Efficiency, and BSFC 135</p> <p>5.3 Comparative Examples of Conventional, Series, and Series-Parallel Hybrid Systems 138</p> <p>5.3.1 Example: Fuel Economy of IC Engine Vehicle with Gasoline or Diesel Engine 138</p> <p>5.3.2 Example: Fuel Economy of Series HEV 144</p> <p>5.3.3 Example: Fuel Economy of Series-Parallel HEV 146</p> <p>5.3.4 Summary of Comparisons 148</p> <p>5.4 The Planetary Gears as a Power-Split Device 148</p> <p>5.4.1 Powertrain of 2004 Toyota Prius 150</p> <p>5.4.2 Example: CVT Operating in Electric Drive Mode (Vehicle Launch and Low Speeds) 151</p> <p>5.4.3 Example: CVT Operating in Full-Power Mode 153</p> <p>5.4.4 Example: CVT Operating in Cruising and Generating Mode 154</p> <p>References 155</p> <p>Problems 155</p> <p>Assignments 156</p> <p><b>Part 2 Electrical Machines 159</b></p> <p><b>6 Introduction to Traction Machines 161</b></p> <p>6.1 Propulsion Machine Overview 161</p> <p>6.1.1 DC Machines 162</p> <p>6.1.2 AC Machines 163</p> <p>6.1.3 Comparison of Traction Machines 167</p> <p>6.1.4 Case Study – Mars Rover Traction Motor 169</p> <p>6.2 Machine Specifications 170</p> <p>6.2.1 Four-Quadrant Operation 170</p> <p>6.2.2 Rated Parameters 171</p> <p>6.2.3 Rated Torque 172</p> <p>6.2.4 Rated and Base Speeds 172</p> <p>6.2.5 Rated Power 172</p> <p>6.2.6 Peak Operation 173</p> <p>6.2.7 Starting Torque 173</p> <p>6.3 Characteristic Curves of a Machine 173</p> <p>6.3.1 Constant-Torque Mode 173</p> <p>6.3.2 Constant-Power Mode 174</p> <p>6.3.3 Maximum-Speed Mode 174</p> <p>6.3.4 Efficiency Maps 174</p> <p>6.4 Conversion Factors of Machine Units 176</p> <p>References 177</p> <p><b>7 The Brushed DC Machine 178</b></p> <p>7.1 DC Machine Structure 178</p> <p>7.2 DC Machine Electrical Equivalent Circuit 180</p> <p>7.3 DC Machine Circuit Equations 182</p> <p>7.3.1 No-Load Spinning Loss 183</p> <p>7.3.2 No-Load Speed 184</p> <p>7.3.3 Maximum Power 184</p> <p>7.3.4 Rated Conditions 184</p> <p>7.4 Power, Losses, and Efficiency in the PM DC Machine 185</p> <p>7.5 Machine Control using Power Electronics 186</p> <p>7.5.1 Example: Motoring using a PM DC Machine 186</p> <p>7.6 Machine Operating as a Motor or Generator in Forward or Reverse Modes 189</p> <p>7.6.1 Example: Generating/Braking using a PM DC Machine 190</p> <p>7.6.2 Example: Motoring in Reverse 191</p> <p>7.7 Saturation and Armature Reaction 191</p> <p>7.7.1 Example: Motoring using PM DC Machine and Machine Saturation 192</p> <p>7.8 Using PM DC Machine for EV Powertrain 193</p> <p>7.8.1 Example: Maximum Speeds using PM DC Machine 194</p> <p>7.9 Using WF DC Machine for EV Powertrain 195</p> <p>7.9.1 Example: Motoring using WF DC Machine 197</p> <p>7.10 Case Study – Mars Rover Traction Machine 199</p> <p>7.11 Thermal Characteristics of Machine 201</p> <p>7.11.1 Example of Steady-State Temperature Rise 202</p> <p>7.11.2 Transient Temperature Rise 203</p> <p>7.11.3 Example of Transient Temperature Rise 203</p> <p>References 204</p> <p>Problems 204</p> <p><b>8 Induction Machines 206</b></p> <p>8.1 Stator Windings and the Spinning Magnetic Field 207</p> <p>8.1.1 Stator Magnetic Flux Density 209</p> <p>8.1.2 Space-Vector Current and the Rotating Magnetic Field 211</p> <p>8.2 Induction Machine Rotor Voltage, Current, and Torque 216</p> <p>8.2.1 Rotor Construction 216</p> <p>8.2.2 Induction Machine Theory of Operation 216</p> <p>8.3 Machine Model and Steady-State Operation 219</p> <p>8.3.1 Power in Three-Phase Induction Machine 222</p> <p>8.3.2 Torque in Three-Phase Induction Machine 223</p> <p>8.3.3 Phasor Analysis of Induction Motor 225</p> <p>8.3.4 Machine Operation When Supplied by Current Source 225</p> <p>8.4 Variable-Speed Operation of Induction Machine 234</p> <p>8.4.1 Constant Volts per hertz Operation 235</p> <p>8.4.2 Variable-Speed Operation 235</p> <p>8.5 Machine Test 240</p> <p>8.5.1 DC Resistance Test 240</p> <p>8.5.2 Locked-Rotor Test 240</p> <p>8.5.3 No-Load Test 242</p> <p>References 244</p> <p>Further Reading 244</p> <p>Problems 245</p> <p>Sample MATLAB Code 246</p> <p><b>9 Surface-Permanent-Magnet AC Machines 249</b></p> <p>9.1 Basic Operation of SPM Machines 249</p> <p>9.1.1 Back EMF of a Single Coil 249</p> <p>9.1.2 Back EMF of Single Phase 250</p> <p>9.1.3 SPM Machine Equations 253</p> <p>9.2 Per-Phase Analysis of SPM Machine 255</p> <p>9.2.1 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit Model for SPM Machine 256</p> <p>9.2.2 Phasor Analysis of SPM Machine 257</p> <p>9.2.3 Machine Saturation 263</p> <p>9.2.4 SPM Torque–Speed Characteristics 264</p> <p>9.2.5 High-Speed Operation of SPM Machine above Rated Speed 266</p> <p>9.2.6 Machine Characteristics for Field-Weakened Operation 270</p> <p>References 272</p> <p>Further Reading 273</p> <p>Problems 273</p> <p>MATLAB Code 274</p> <p><b>10 Interior-Permanent-Magnet AC Machine 276</b></p> <p>10.1 Machine Structure and Torque Equations 276</p> <p>10.2 <i>d</i>- and <i>q</i>-Axis Inductances 278</p> <p>10.2.1 Example: Estimating the d-axis and q-axis Inductances for 2004 Toyota Prius Motor 281</p> <p>10.3 IPM Machine Test 281</p> <p>10.3.1 No-Load Spin Test 282</p> <p>10.3.2 DC Torque Test 282</p> <p>10.4 Basic Theory and Low-Speed Operation 286</p> <p>10.4.1 Example: Motoring at Rated Condition 287</p> <p>10.4.2 Maximum Torque per Ampere (MTPA) 289</p> <p>10.4.3 Maximum Torque per Volt (MTPV) or Maximum Torque per Flux (MTPF) 289</p> <p>10.5 High-Speed Operation of IPM Machine 289</p> <p>10.5.1 Example: Motoring at High Speed using IPM Machine 289</p> <p>10.6 dq Modeling of Machines 291</p> <p>10.6.1 Constant Current Transformation 292</p> <p>10.6.2 Constant Power Transformation 294</p> <p>References 295</p> <p>Further Reading 295</p> <p>Problems 296</p> <p>Assignments 298</p> <p><b>Part 3 Power Electronics 299</b></p> <p><b>11 DC-DC Converters 301</b></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 301</p> <p>11.2 Power Conversion – Common and Basic Principles 304</p> <p>11.2.1 The Basic Topologies 306</p> <p>11.2.2 The Half-Bridge Buck-Boost Bidirectional Converter 307</p> <p>11.3 The Buck or Step-Down Converter 307</p> <p>11.3.1 Analysis of Voltage Gain of Buck Converter in CCM 309</p> <p>11.3.2 BCM Operation of Buck Converter 317</p> <p>11.3.3 DCM Operation of Buck Converter 319</p> <p>11.4 The Boost or Step-up Converter 325</p> <p>11.4.1 Analysis of Voltage Gain of Boost Converter in CCM 326</p> <p>11.4.2 BCM Operation of Boost Converter 330</p> <p>11.4.3 DCM Operation of Boost Converter 332</p> <p>11.5 Power Semiconductors 336</p> <p>11.5.1 Power Semiconductor Power Loss 337</p> <p>11.5.2 Total Semiconductor Power Loss and Junction Temperature 341</p> <p>11.6 Passive Components for Power Converters 342</p> <p>11.6.1 Example: Inductor Sizing 342</p> <p>11.6.2 Capacitor Sizing 343</p> <p>11.7 Interleaving 343</p> <p>11.7.1 Example: Two-Phase Interleaved Boost Converter 345</p> <p>References 346</p> <p>Further Reading 346</p> <p>Problems 346</p> <p>Assignments 349</p> <p>Appendix I 349</p> <p>Appendix II: Buck-Boost Converter 349</p> <p>Appendix III: Silicon Carbide Converters and Inverters 352</p> <p><b>12 Isolated DC-DC Converters 353</b></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 353</p> <p>12.1.1 Advantages of Isolated Power Converters 353</p> <p>12.1.2 Power Converter Families 354</p> <p>12.2 The Forward Converter 355</p> <p>12.2.1 CCM Currents in Forward Converter 357</p> <p>12.2.2 CCM Voltages in Forward Converter 362</p> <p>12.2.3 Sizing the Transformer 365</p> <p>12.3 The Full-Bridge Converter 365</p> <p>12.3.1 Operation of Hard-Switched Full-Bridge Converter 367</p> <p>12.3.2 CCM Currents in Full-Bridge Converter 370</p> <p>12.3.3 CCM Voltages in the Full-Bridge Converter 376</p> <p>12.4 Resonant Power Conversion 377</p> <p>12.4.1 LCLC Series-Parallel Resonant Converter 377</p> <p>12.4.2 Desirable Converter Characteristics for Inductive Charging 378</p> <p>12.4.3 Fundamental-Mode Analysis and Current-Source Operation 381</p> <p>12.4.4 Simulation 385</p> <p>References 388</p> <p>Further Reading 388</p> <p>Problems 388</p> <p>Assignments 390</p> <p>Appendix I: RMS and Average Values of Ramp and Step Waveforms 390</p> <p>Appendix II: Flyback Converter 391</p> <p><b>13 Traction Drives and Three-Phase Inverters 392</b></p> <p>13.1 Three-Phase Inverters 392</p> <p>13.2 Modulation Schemes 393</p> <p>13.2.1 Sinusoidal Modulation 395</p> <p>13.2.2 Sinusoidal Modulation with Third Harmonic Addition 396</p> <p>13.2.3 Overmodulation and Square Wave 398</p> <p>13.3 Sinusoidal Modulation 398</p> <p>13.3.1 Modulation Index <i>m</i> 399</p> <p>13.3.2 Inverter Currents 401</p> <p>13.3.3 Switch, Diode, and Input Average Currents 401</p> <p>13.3.4 Switch, Diode, DC Link, and Input Capacitor RMS Currents 403</p> <p>13.3.5 Example: Inverter Currents 404</p> <p>13.4 Inverter Power Loss 405</p> <p>13.4.1 Conduction Loss of IGBT and Diode 405</p> <p>13.4.2 Switching Loss of IGBT Module 405</p> <p>13.4.3 Total Semiconductor Power Loss and Junction Temperature 407</p> <p>13.4.4 Example: Regenerative Currents 408</p> <p>References 409</p> <p>Further Reading 409</p> <p>Problems 410</p> <p>Assignments 411</p> <p><b>14 Battery Charging 412</b></p> <p>14.1 Basic Requirements for Charging System 412</p> <p>14.2 Charger Architectures 414</p> <p>14.3 Grid Voltages, Frequencies, and Wiring 416</p> <p>14.4 Charger Functions 418</p> <p>14.4.1 Real Power, Apparent Power, and Power Factor 419</p> <p>14.5 Charging Standards and Technologies 422</p> <p>14.5.1 SAE J1772 422</p> <p>14.5.2 VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 425</p> <p>14.5.3 CHAdeMo 425</p> <p>14.5.4 Tesla 425</p> <p>14.5.5 Wireless Charging 425</p> <p>14.6 The Boost Converter for Power Factor Correction 427</p> <p>14.6.1 The Boost PFC Power Stage 428</p> <p>14.6.2 Sizing the Boost Inductor 430</p> <p>14.6.3 Average Currents in the Rectifier 431</p> <p>14.6.4 Switch and Diode Average Currents 432</p> <p>14.6.5 Switch, Diode, and Capacitor RMS Currents 434</p> <p>14.6.6 Power Semiconductors for Charging 434</p> <p>References 438</p> <p>Further Reading 438</p> <p>Problems 439</p> <p>Assignments 440</p> <p><b>15 Control of the Electric Drive 441</b></p> <p>15.1 Introduction to Control 441</p> <p>15.1.1 Feedback Controller Design Approach 442</p> <p>15.2 Modeling the Electromechanical System 443</p> <p>15.2.1 The Mechanical System 443</p> <p>15.2.2 The PM DC Machine 446</p> <p>15.2.3 The DC-DC Power Converter 447</p> <p>15.2.4 The PI Controller 447</p> <p>15.3 Designing Torque Loop Compensation 448</p> <p>15.3.1 Example: Determining Compensator Gain Coefficients for Torque Loop 449</p> <p>15.4 Designing Speed Control Loop Compensation 449</p> <p>15.4.1 Example: Determining Compensator Gain Coefficients for Speed Loop 451</p> <p>15.5 Acceleration of Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) using PM DC Machine 451</p> <p>15.6 Acceleration of BEV using WF DC Machine 452</p> <p>References 455</p> <p>Problems 455</p> <p>Assignment and Sample MATLAB Codes 456</p> <p><b>Part 4 Electromagnetism 459</b></p> <p><b>16 Introduction to Electromagnetism, Ferromagnetism, and Electromechanical Energy Conversion 461</b></p> <p>16.1 Electromagnetism 462</p> <p>16.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations 462</p> <p>16.2 Ferromagnetism 467</p> <p>16.2.1 Magnetism and Hysteresis 467</p> <p>16.2.2 Hard and Soft Ferromagnetic Materials 470</p> <p>16.3 Self-Inductance 473</p> <p>16.3.1 Basic Inductor Operation 474</p> <p>16.3.2 Inductor Equations 475</p> <p>16.3.3 Reluctance 478</p> <p>16.3.4 Energy Stored in Magnetic Field 481</p> <p>16.3.5 Core Loss 482</p> <p>16.3.6 Copper Loss 484</p> <p>16.3.7 Inductor Sizing using Area Product 487</p> <p>16.3.8 High-Frequency Operation and Skin Depth 488</p> <p>16.4 Hard Ferromagnetic Materials and Permanent Magnets 489</p> <p>16.4.1 Example: Remanent Flux Density 490</p> <p>16.4.2 Example: The Recoil Line 492</p> <p>16.4.3 Example: Air Gap Flux Density due to a Permanent Magnet 494</p> <p>16.4.4 Maximum Energy Product 494</p> <p>16.4.5 Force due to Permanent Magnet 494</p> <p>16.4.6 Electromagnet 497</p> <p>16.5 The Transformer 498</p> <p>16.5.1 Theory of Operation 498</p> <p>16.5.2 Transformer Equivalent Circuit 500</p> <p>16.5.3 Transformer Voltages and Currents 501</p> <p>16.5.4 Sizing the Transformer using the Area-Product (AP) Method 505</p> <p>16.6 The Capacitor 506</p> <p>16.6.1 Sizing Polypropylene High-Voltage Capacitor 508</p> <p>16.7 Electromechanical Energy Conversion 509</p> <p>16.7.1 Ampere’s Force Law 509</p> <p>16.7.2 General Expression for Torque on Current-Carrying Coil 510</p> <p>16.7.3 Torque, Flux Linkage, and Current 511</p> <p>16.7.4 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 512</p> <p>16.7.5 Lenz’s Law and Fleming’s Right Hand Rule 512</p> <p>References 513</p> <p>Further Reading 514</p> <p>Further Viewing 515</p> <p>Problems 515</p> <p>Assignments 518</p> <p>Reference Conversion Table 519</p> <p>Index 521</p>