Details

Fracking


Fracking

Further Investigations into the Environmental Considerations and Operations of Hydraulic Fracturing
2. Aufl.

von: Michael D. Holloway

249,99 €

Verlag: Wiley
Format: EPUB
Veröffentl.: 14.06.2018
ISBN/EAN: 9781119364337
Sprache: englisch
Anzahl Seiten: 952

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Beschreibungen

<p>Since the first edition of <i>Fracking</i> was published, hydraulic fracturing has continued to be hotly debated. Credited with bringing the US and other countries closer to "energy independence," and blamed for tainted drinking water and earthquakes, hydraulic fracturing ("fracking") continues to be one of the hottest topics and fiercely debated issues in the energy industry and in politics.</p> <p>Covering all of the latest advances in fracking since the first edition was published, this expanded and updated revision still contains all of the valuable original content for the engineer or layperson to understand the technology and its ramifications. Useful not only as a tool for the practicing engineer solve day-to-day problems that come with working in hydraulic fracturing, it is also a wealth of information covering the possible downsides of what many consider to be a very valuable practice. Many others consider it dangerous, and it is important to see both sides of the argument, from an apolitical, logical standpoint.</p> <p>While induced hydraulic fracturing utilizes many different engineering disciplines, this book explains these concepts in an easy to understand format. The primary use of this book shall be to increase the awareness of a new and emerging technology and what the various ramifications can be. The reader shall be exposed to many engineering concepts and terms. All of these ideas and practices shall be explained within the body. A science or engineering background is not required.</p>
<p>Preface xv</p> <p>An Introduction to Hydraulic Fracturing xvii</p> <p><b>1 Environmental Impact – Reality and Myth and Nero Did Not Fiddle While Rome Burned 1</b></p> <p>1.1 The Tower of Babel and How it Could be the Cause of Much of the Fracking Debate 2</p> <p><b>2 Production Development 5</b></p> <p><b>3 Fractures: Their Orientation and Length 11</b></p> <p>3.1 Fracture Orientation 11</p> <p>3.2 Fracture Length/ Height 13</p> <p><b>4 Casing and Cementing 15</b></p> <p>4.1 Blowouts 16</p> <p>4.2 Surface Blowouts 17</p> <p>4.3 Subsurface Blowouts 17</p> <p>4.4 Horizontal Drilling 18</p> <p>4.5 Fracturing and the Groundwater Debate 18</p> <p><b>5 Pre-Drill Assessments 19</b></p> <p>5.1 Basis of Design 21</p> <p><b>6 Well Construction 23</b></p> <p>6.1 Drilling 23</p> <p>6.2 Completion 26</p> <p><b>7 Well Operations 29</b></p> <p>7.1 Well Plug and Abandonment “P&A” 30</p> <p>7.2 Considerations 30</p> <p><b>8 Failure and Contamination Reduction 43</b></p> <p>8.1 Conduct Environmental Sampling Before and During Operations 43</p> <p>8.2 Disclose the Chemicals Being Used in Fracking Operations 44</p> <p>8.3 Ensure that Wellbore Casings are Properly Designed and Constructed 44</p> <p>8.4 Eliminate Venting and Work Toward Green Completions 44</p> <p>8.5 Prevent Flowback Spillage/Leaks 45</p> <p>8.6 Dispose/Recycle Flowback Properly 45</p> <p>8.7 Minimize Noise and Dust 45</p> <p>8.8 Protect Workers and Drivers 46</p> <p>8.9 Communicate and Engage 46</p> <p>8.10 Record and Document 47</p> <p><b>9 Frack Fluids and Composition 49</b></p> <p>9.1 Uses and Needs for Frack Fluids 50</p> <p>9.2 Common Fracturing Additives 50</p> <p>9.3 Typical Percentages of Commonly Used Additives 53</p> <p>9.4 Proppants 53</p> <p>9.5 Silica Sand 55</p> <p>9.6 Resin Coated Proppant 57</p> <p>9.7 Manufactured Ceramics Proppants 58</p> <p>9.8 Additional Types 58</p> <p>9.9 Slickwater 59</p> <p><b>10 So Where Do the Frack Fluids Go? 61</b></p> <p><b>11 Common Objections to Drilling Operations 63</b></p> <p>11.1 Noise 64</p> <p>11.2 Changes in Landscape and Beauty of Surroundings 65</p> <p>11.3 Increased Traffic 66</p> <p>11.4 Subsurface Contamination of Ground Water 67</p> <p>11.5 Impacts on Water Wells 67</p> <p>11.6 Water Analysis 67</p> <p>11.7 Types of Methane and What They Show Us 70</p> <p>11.8 Biogenic 71</p> <p>11.9 Thermogenic 71</p> <p>11.10 Possible Causes of Methane in Water Wells 71</p> <p>11.11 Surface Water and Soil Impacts 72</p> <p>11.12 Spill Preparation and Documentation 72</p> <p>11.13 Other Surface Impacts 73</p> <p>11.14 Land Use Permitting 73</p> <p>11.15 Water Usage and Management 74</p> <p>11.16 Flowback Water 74</p> <p>11.17 Produced Water 75</p> <p>11.18 Flowback and Produced Water Management 76</p> <p>11.19 Geological Shifts 76</p> <p>11.20 Induced Seismic Event 77</p> <p>11.21 Wastewater Disposal Wells 78</p> <p>11.22 Site Remediation 78</p> <p>11.23 Regulatory Oversight 78</p> <p>11.24 Federal Level Oversight 79</p> <p>11.25 State Level Oversight 79</p> <p>11.26 Municipal Level Oversight 80</p> <p>11.27 Examples of Legislation and Regulations 80</p> <p>11.28 Frack Fluid Makeup Reporting 81</p> <p>11.29 FracFocus 82</p> <p>11.30 Atmospheric Emissions 83</p> <p><b>12 Air Emissions Controls 85</b></p> <p>12.1 Common Sources of Air Emissions 87</p> <p>12.2 Fugitive Air Emissions 88</p> <p>12.3 Silica Dust Exposure 89</p> <p>12.4 Stationary Sources 89</p> <p>12.5 The Clean Air Act 90</p> <p>12.6 Regulated Pollutants 90</p> <p>12.7 NAAQS Criteria Pollutants 91</p> <p>12.8 Attainment Versus Non-attainment 91</p> <p>12.9 Types of Federal Regulations 92</p> <p>12.10 MACT/NESHAP HAPs 92</p> <p>12.11 NSPS Regulations: 40 CFR Part 60 92</p> <p>12.12 NSPS Subpart OOOO 93</p> <p>12.13 Facilities/Activities Affected by NSPS OOOO 93</p> <p>12.14 Other Types of Federal NSPS and NESHAP/MACT Regulations 95</p> <p>12.15 NSPS Subpart IIII 95</p> <p>12.16 NSPS Subpart JJJJ 95</p> <p>12.17 NSPS Subpart KKK 95</p> <p>12.18 MACT Subpart HH and Subpart HHH 95</p> <p>12.19 MACT Subpart ZZZZ 96</p> <p>12.20 Construction and Operating New Source Review Permits 96</p> <p>12.21 Title V Permits 96</p> <p><b>13 Chemicals and Products on Locations 99</b></p> <p>13.1 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 102</p> <p>13.2 Contents of an MSDS 103</p> <p>13.3 Product Identification 104</p> <p>13.4 Hazardous Ingredients of Mixtures 104</p> <p>13.5 Physical Data 105</p> <p>13.6 Fire and Explosion Hazard Data 106</p> <p>13.7 Health Hazard Data 106</p> <p>13.8 Emergency and First Aid Procedures 107</p> <p>13.9 Reactivity Data 107</p> <p>13.10 Spill, Leak, and Disposal Procedures 107</p> <p>13.11 Personal Protection Information 108</p> <p>13.12 HCS 2012 Safety Data Sheets (SDS) 117</p> <p><b>14 Public Perception, the Media, and the Facts 123</b></p> <p>14.1 Regulation or Policy Topics: Media Coverage and Public Perception 128</p> <p><b>15 Notes from the Field 137</b></p> <p>15.1 Going Forward 150</p> <p><b>16 Migration of Hydrocarbon Gases 153</b></p> <p>16.1 Introduction 153</p> <p>16.2 Geochemical Exploration for Petroleum 154</p> <p>16.3 Primary and Secondary Migration of Hydrocarbons 157</p> <p>16.3.1 Primary Gas Migration 157</p> <p>16.3.2 Secondary Gas Migration 159</p> <p>16.3.3 Gas Entrapment 159</p> <p>16.4 Origin of Migrating Hydrocarbon Gases 161</p> <p>16.4.1 Biogenic vs. Thermogenic Gas 161</p> <p>16.4.1.1 Sources of Migrating Gases 161</p> <p>16.4.1.2 Biogenic Methane 162</p> <p>16.4.1.3 Thermogenic Methane Gas 165</p> <p>16.4.2 Isotopic Values of Gases 167</p> <p>16.4.3 Nonhydrocarbon Gases 168</p> <p>16.4.4 Mixing of Gases 170</p> <p>16.4.5 Surface Gas Sampling 172</p> <p>16.4.6 Summary 172</p> <p>16.5 Driving Force of Gas Movement 174</p> <p>16.5.1 Density of a Hydrocarbon Gas under Pressure 174</p> <p>16.5.2 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 176</p> <p>16.5.3 Other Methods of Computing Natural Gas Compressibility 177</p> <p>16.5.4 Density of Water 181</p> <p>16.5.5 Petrophysical Parameters Affecting Gas Migration 183</p> <p>16.5.6 Porosity, Void Ratio, and Density 184</p> <p>16.5.7 Permeability 188</p> <p>16.5.8 Free and Dissolved Gas in Fluid 189</p> <p>16.5.9 Quantity of Dissolved Gas in Water 191</p> <p>16.6 Types of Gas Migration 192</p> <p>16.6.1 Molecular Diffusion Mechanism 193</p> <p>16.6.2 Discontinuous-Phase Migration of Gas 195</p> <p>16.6.3 Minimum Height of Gas Column Necessary to Initiate Upward Gas Movement 198</p> <p>16.6.4 Buoyant Flow 199</p> <p>16.6.5 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 200</p> <p>16.6.6 Gas Columns 201</p> <p>16.6.7 Sample Problem 2.2 (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 203</p> <p>16.6.8 Continuous-Phase Gas Migration 204</p> <p>16.7 Paths of Gas Migration Associated with Oilwells 207</p> <p>16.7.1 Natural Paths of Gas Migration 209</p> <p>16.7.2 Man-Made Paths of Gas Migration (boreholes) 211</p> <p>16.7.3 Creation of Induced Fractures during Drilling 213</p> <p>16.8 Wells Leaking Due to Cementing Failure 217</p> <p>16.8.1 Breakdown of Cement 217</p> <p>16.8.2 Cement Isolation Breakdown (Shrinkage—Circumferential Fractures) 217</p> <p>16.8.3 Improper Placement of Cement 220</p> <p>16.9 Environmental Hazards of Gas Migration 222</p> <p>16.9.1 Explosive Nature of Gas 222</p> <p>16.9.2 Toxicity of Hydrocarbon Gas 224</p> <p>16.10 Migration of Gas from Petroleum Wellbores 227</p> <p>16.10.1 Effect of Seismic Activity 228</p> <p>16.11 Case Histories of Gas Migration Problems 228</p> <p>16.11.1 Inglewood Oilfield, CA 230</p> <p>16.11.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA 231</p> <p>16.11.2.1 Belmont High School Construction 233</p> <p>16.11.3 Montebello Oilfield, CA 234</p> <p>16.11.3.1 Montebello Underground Gas Storage 234</p> <p>16.11.4 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA 235</p> <p>16.11.4.1 Playa Del Rey underground Gas Storage 235</p> <p>16.11.5 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA 238</p> <p>16.11.5.1 Ross Dress for Less Department Store Explosion/Fire, Los Angeles, CA 238</p> <p>16.11.5.2 Gilmore Bank 240</p> <p>16.11.5.3 South Salt Lake Oilfield Gas Seeps from Gas Injection Project 241</p> <p>16.11.5.4 Wilshire and Curson Gas Seep, Los Angeles, CA, 1999 241</p> <p>16.11.6 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA 241</p> <p>16.11.7 El Segundo Oilfield, CA 244</p> <p>16.11.8 Honor Rancho and Tapia Oilfields, CA 244</p> <p>16.11.9 Sylmar, CA — Tunnel Explosion 244</p> <p>16.11.10 Hutchinson, KS — Explosion and Fires 247</p> <p>16.11.11 Huntsman Gas Storage, NE 247</p> <p>16.11.12 Mont Belvieu Gas Storage Field, TX 248</p> <p>16.11.13 Leroy Gas Storage Facility, WY 248</p> <p>16.12 Conclusions 249</p> <p>References and Bibliography 252</p> <p><b>17 Subsidence as a Result of Gas/Oil/Water Production 261</b></p> <p>17.1 Introduction 261</p> <p>17.2 Theoretical Compaction Models 264</p> <p>17.3 Theoretical Modeling of Compaction 270</p> <p>17.3.1 Terzaghi’s Compaction Model 272</p> <p>17.3.2 Athy’s Compaction Model 274</p> <p>17.3.3 Hedberg’s Compaction Model 275</p> <p>17.3.4 Weller’s Compaction Model 275</p> <p>17.3.5 Teodorovich and Chernov’s Compaction Model 276</p> <p>17.3.6 Beall’s Compaction Model 277</p> <p>17.3.7 Katz and Ibrahim Compaction Model 277</p> <p>17.4 Subsidence Over Oilfields 279</p> <p>17.4.1 Rate of Subsidence 281</p> <p>17.4.2 Effect of Earthquakes on Subsidence 282</p> <p>17.4.3 Stress and Strain Distribution in Subsiding Areas 283</p> <p>17.4.4 Calculation of Subsidence in Oilfields 286</p> <p>17.4.5 Permeability Seals for Confined Aquifers 289</p> <p>17.4.6 Fissures Caused by Subsidence 290</p> <p>17.5 Case Studies of Subsidence over Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 292</p> <p>17.5.1 Los Angeles Basin, CA, Oilfields, Inglewood Oilfield, CA 292</p> <p>17.5.1.1 Baldwin Hills Dam Failure 294</p> <p>17.5.1.2 Proposed Housing Development 297</p> <p>17.5.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA 297</p> <p>17.5.2.1 Belmont High School Construction 297</p> <p>17.5.3 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA 299</p> <p>17.5.3.1 Playa Del Rey Marina Subsidence 299</p> <p>17.5.4 Torrance Oilfield, CA 301</p> <p>17.5.5 Redondo Beach Marina Area, CA 302</p> <p>17.5.6 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA 303</p> <p>17.5.7 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA 305</p> <p>17.5.8 Wilmington Oilfield, Long Beach, CA 306</p> <p>17.5.9 North Stavropol Oilfield, Russia 318</p> <p>17.5.10 Subsidence over Venezuelan Oilfields 324</p> <p>17.5.10.1 Subsidence in the Bolivar Coastal Oilfields of Venezuela 325</p> <p>17.5.10.2 Subsidence of Facilities 328</p> <p>17.5.11 Po-Veneto Plain, Italy 335</p> <p>17.5.11.1 Po Delta 336</p> <p>17.5.12 Subsidence Over the North Sea Ekofisk Oilfield 343</p> <p>17.5.12.1 Production 345</p> <p>17.5.12.2 Ekofisk Field Description 346</p> <p>17.5.12.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects 348</p> <p>17.5.13 Platform Sinking 348</p> <p>17.6 Concluding Remarks 350</p> <p>References and Bibliography 351</p> <p><b>18 Effect of Emission of CO2 and CH4 into the Atmosphere 361</b></p> <p>18.1 Introduction 361</p> <p>18.2 Historic Geologic Evidence 363</p> <p>18.2.1 Historic Record of Earth’s Global Temperature 363</p> <p>18.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric Carbon Content on Global Temperature 366</p> <p>18.2.3 Sources of CO2 370</p> <p>18.3 Adiabatic Theory 373</p> <p>18.3.1 Modeling the Planet Earth 373</p> <p>18.3.2 Modeling the Planet Venus 375</p> <p>18.3.3 Anthropogenic Carbon Effect on the Earth’s Global Temperature 380</p> <p>18.3.4 Methane Gas Emissions 383</p> <p>18.3.5 Monitoring of Methane Gas Emissions 385</p> <p>References 385</p> <p><b>19 Fracking in the USA 389</b></p> <p>Appendix A: Chemicals Used in Fracking 729</p> <p>Appendix B: State Agency Web Addresses 907</p> <p>Bibliography: 911</p> <p>Index 913</p>
<p><b>Michael D. Holloway</b> has worked in industry for 35 years in research and development, technical marketing, equipment reliability and sales. He has written books on spend analysis, specification development, failure interpretation as well as process plant equipment operations, control, and reliability, the Dictionary of Industrial Terms and recently a bestseller on Hydraulic Fracturing. He holds a BS in chemistry, a BA in philosophy and a MS in engineering. Holloway is a Certified Lubrication Specialist (CLS), Oil Monitoring Analyst (OMA I) through Society of Tribology and Lubrication Engineers, a Level I Machinery Lubrication Technician (MLT I) and a Machinery Lubrication Analyst (MLA I) through International Council for Machinery Lubrication as well as an elected member of the Russian Academy of Natural Science.
<p><b>This revised, expanded edition of an instant classic explores the history, techniques, and materials used in the practice of induced hydraulic fracturing, while examining the environmental and economic impact.</b> <p>Since the first edition of <i>Fracking</i> was published, hydraulic fracturing has continued to be hotly debated. Credited with bringing the US and other countries closer to "energy independence," and blamed for tainted drinking water and earthquakes, hydraulic fracturing ("fracking") continues to be one of the hottest topics and fiercely debated issues in the energy industry and in politics. <p>Covering all of the latest advances in fracking since the first edition was published, this expanded and updated revision still contains all of the valuable original content for the engineer or layperson to understand the technology and its ramifications. Useful not only as a tool for the practicing engineer to solve day-to-day problems that come with working in hydraulic fracturing, it is also a wealth of information covering the possible downsides of what many consider to be a very valuable practice. Many others consider it dangerous, and it is important to see both sides of the argument, from an apolitical, logical standpoint. <p>While induced hydraulic fracturing utilizes many different engineering disciplines, this book explains these concepts in an easy to understand format. The primary use of this book shall be to increase the awareness of a new and emerging technology and what the various ramifications can be. The reader shall be exposed to many engineering concepts and terms. All of these ideas and practices shall be explained within the body. A science or engineering background is not required. <p><b>This groundbreaking new volume:</b> <ul> <li>Covers all of the latest advances and innovations in hydraulic fracturing since the publication of the first edition</li> <li>Presents both sides of a very controversial subject in today's media, induced hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking"</li> <li>Covers the technology and methods used in hydraulic fracturing in easy-to-understand language, for the engineer and layperson alike</li> <li>Presents the environmental effects of hydraulic fracturing</li> </ul>

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