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<p>Preface xiii</p> <p>List of Contributors xv</p> <p><b>1 Introduction: Relationships of Structures, Properties, and Functionality 1<br /> </b><i>Kiyotaka Sato</i></p> <p>1.1 Introduction 1</p> <p>1.2 Lipid Species 1</p> <p>1.2.1 Hydrocarbons 1</p> <p>1.2.2 Fatty Acids 2</p> <p>1.2.3 Alcohols and Waxes 4</p> <p>1.2.4 Acylglycerols 4</p> <p>1.3 Physical States and the Functionality of Lipid Products 5</p> <p>1.4 Formation Processes of Lipid Crystals 7</p> <p>1.5 Polymorphism 9</p> <p>1.6 Aging and Deterioration 11</p> <p>1.7 Trans‐Fat Alternative and Saturated‐Fat Reduction Technology 13</p> <p>References 15</p> <p><b>2 Polymorphism of Lipid Crystals 17<br /> </b><i>Kiyotaka Sato</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 17</p> <p>2.2 Thermal Behavior of Polymorphic Transformations 17</p> <p>2.3 Molecular Properties 20</p> <p>2.3.1 Subcell and Chain‐Length Structures 20</p> <p>2.3.2 Conformation of Hydrocarbon Chains 24</p> <p>2.3.3 Glycerol Conformations 25</p> <p>2.3.4 Polytypism 26</p> <p>2.4 Fatty Acids 27</p> <p>2.4.1 Saturated Fatty Acids 27</p> <p>2.4.2 Unsaturated Fatty Acids 32</p> <p>2.5 Monoacylglycerols and Diacylglycerols 37</p> <p>2.5.1 Crystal/Molecular Structures 37</p> <p>2.5.2 Polymorphic Behavior 39</p> <p>2.6 Triacylglycerols (TAGs) 41</p> <p>2.6.1 Crystal/Molecular Structures 42</p> <p>2.6.2 Polymorphic Behavior 46</p> <p>2.7 Conclusions 54</p> <p>References 54</p> <p><b>3 Molecular Interactions and Mixing Phase Behavior of Lipid Crystals 61<br /> </b><i>Eckhard Floeter, Michaela Haeupler, and Kiyotaka Sato</i></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 61</p> <p>3.2 Thermodynamic Considerations 63</p> <p>3.2.1 Framework for Engineering Calculations 63</p> <p>3.2.2 Phase Behavior of Co‐Crystallizing Components 66</p> <p>3.2.3 Governing Principles for Phase Boundaries 70</p> <p>3.3 Effects of Molecular Structures on the Phase Behavior 70</p> <p>3.3.1 Aliphatic Chain‐Chain Interactions: n‐Alkanes 71</p> <p>3.3.2 Mixtures of Fatty Acids 72</p> <p>3.3.3 Mixtures of Partial Glyceride Fatty‐Acid Esters 81</p> <p>3.3.4 Mixtures of TAGs 82</p> <p>3.4 Mixing Behavior of TAGs in Natural and Interesterified Fats 92</p> <p>3.4.1 Cocoa Butter 93</p> <p>3.4.2 Palm Oil 94</p> <p>3.4.3 Coconut Oil 95</p> <p>3.4.4 Milk Fat 95</p> <p>3.4.5 Interesterified Fats 96</p> <p>3.5 Crystallization Properties 97</p> <p>3.6 Conclusions 98</p> <p>References 100</p> <p><b>4 Fundamental Aspects of Crystallization of Lipids 105<br /> </b><i>Hironori Hondoh, Satoru Ueno, and Kiyotaka Sato</i></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 105</p> <p>4.2 Physical and Structural Properties of Lipid Liquids 105</p> <p>4.2.1 Preheating Effects 106</p> <p>4.2.2 Liquid Phases of Triacylglycerols 109</p> <p>4.3 Driving Forces for Crystallization 112</p> <p>4.4 Nucleation 114</p> <p>4.4.1 Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous 114</p> <p>4.4.2 Polymorph‐Dependent Nucleation Kinetics 118</p> <p>4.4.3 Secondary Nucleation 121</p> <p>4.4.4 Crystal Seeding 122</p> <p>4.5 Kinetics of Crystal Growth 125</p> <p>4.5.1 Mechanism of Crystal Growth 125</p> <p>4.5.2 Crystal Growth Rate 127</p> <p>4.5.3 Polymorph‐Dependent Growth Rate 129</p> <p>4.5.4 Spherulite 130</p> <p>4.5.5 Epitaxial Growth 132</p> <p>4.5.6 Morphology of Crystals 133</p> <p>4.6 Conclusions 135</p> <p>Acknowledgment 136</p> <p>References 136</p> <p><b>5 Supramolecular Assembly of Fat Crystal Networks from the Nanoscale to the Mesoscale 143<br /> </b><i>Fernanda Peyronel, Nuria C. Acevedo, David A. Pink, and Alejandro G. Marangoni</i></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 143</p> <p>5.2 Cryo‐TEM 144</p> <p>5.2.1 Challenges Associated with the Microscopic Observation of Fat Microstructure 144</p> <p>5.2.2 Sample Preparation for Cryo‐TEM 145</p> <p>5.2.3 Nanoscale Structure Characterization 146</p> <p>5.2.4 Effects of External Fields on Fat Nanostructure 148</p> <p>5.3 Physical Interactions, Models, and Mathematical Methods 154</p> <p>5.3.1 Models in General 155</p> <p>5.3.2 Coarse‐Grained Interactions: Nano‐ to Mesoscale 156</p> <p>5.3.3 Models Using Spheres 157</p> <p>5.3.4 Introduction to Modeling the Statics and Dynamics of Aggregates 157</p> <p>5.3.5 Static Structure Functions 158</p> <p>5.3.6 Application 1: CNP Aggregation. Tristearin Solids in Triolein Oil 158</p> <p>5.3.7 Application 2: Complex Oils. Tristearin Solids in Complex Oils 161</p> <p>5.3.8 Application 3: Nanoscale Phase Separation in Edible Oils 162</p> <p>5.4 Ultra Small Angle X‐Ray Scattering (USAXS) 164</p> <p>5.4.1 Principles of X‐Ray Scattering 164</p> <p>5.4.2 USAXS Instrumentation at the APS 167</p> <p>5.4.3 Sample Preparation 168</p> <p>5.4.4 Unified Fit and Guinier‐Porod Models 168</p> <p>5.4.5 Experimental Results 170</p> <p>5.5 Concluding Remarks 174</p> <p>Acknowledgments 175</p> <p>References 175</p> <p><b>6 Effects of Dynamic Temperature Variations on Microstructure and Polymorphic Behavior of Lipid Systems 183<br /> </b><i>Laura Bayés‐García, Teresa Calvet, and Miquel À. Cuevas‐Diarte</i></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 183</p> <p>6.2 Influence on the Polymorphic Behavior in Bulk State 183</p> <p>6.2.1 Single Tag Components 183</p> <p>6.2.2 Binary Mixtures of TAGs 189</p> <p>6.3 Colloidal Dispersion States 193</p> <p>6.3.1 Emulsions 193</p> <p>6.3.2 Organogels 196</p> <p>6.4 Role of Thermal Treatments on End Food Products Properties 198</p> <p>6.4.1 Milk Fats 198</p> <p>6.4.2 Other Dairy Products 199</p> <p>6.4.3 Cocoa Butter 200</p> <p>6.4.4 Vegetable Fats 204</p> <p>6.5 Conclusions 206</p> <p>References 207</p> <p><b>7 Lipid Crystal Networks Structured under Shear Flow 211<br /> </b><i>Farnaz Maleky and Gianfranco Mazzanti</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 211</p> <p>7.2 Overview of the Formation of Fat Crystals 212</p> <p>7.3 Temperature Gradients and Optimal Supercooling 213</p> <p>7.4 Basic Concepts on Shear Flow 214</p> <p>7.5 Fat Crystallization under Shear 216</p> <p>7.5.1 Shear Affects Polymorphic Transformations 216</p> <p>7.5.2 Crystalline Orientation Induced by Shear Flow 219</p> <p>7.5.3 Shear Affects Fat Structural Properties at the Micro‐ and Nano‐Length Scales 224</p> <p>7.5.4 Physicochemical Properties of Sheared Fat Matrices 227</p> <p>7.5.5 Effects of Shear Flow on Mass Transfer Dynamics of Crystallizing and Crystallized Materials 231</p> <p>7.6 Concluding Remarks 233</p> <p>References 234</p> <p><b>8 Tailoring Lipid Crystal Networks with High‐Intensity Ultrasound 241<br /> </b><i>Yubin Ye, Peter R. Birkin, and Silvana Martini</i></p> <p>8.1 Introduction 241</p> <p>8.2 Fundamentals of Sonication 242</p> <p>8.2.1 Acoustic Driving Force 242</p> <p>8.2.2 Acoustic Cell Characteristics 243</p> <p>8.2.3 Cavitation 244</p> <p>8.2.4 Experimental Conditions 245</p> <p>8.3 Tailoring Lipid Crystal Networks 246</p> <p>8.3.1 Crystallization Kinetics 246</p> <p>8.3.2 Inferential Mechanism 249</p> <p>8.3.3 Postsonication Changes 250</p> <p>8.4 Practical Considerations 255</p> <p>8.4.1 Oxidation 255</p> <p>8.4.2 Scale Up 257</p> <p>8.4.3 Combination with Other Processing Methods 258</p> <p>8.5 Conclusions and Future Research 258</p> <p>References 259</p> <p><b>9 Effects of Foreign and Indigenous Minor Components 263<br /> </b><i>Kevin W. Smith and Kiyotaka Sato</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 263</p> <p>9.2 Basic Understanding 264</p> <p>9.3 Effects of Foreign Components 265</p> <p>9.3.1 Emulsifiers 265</p> <p>9.3.2 Indigenous Minor Components 276</p> <p>9.4 Other Additives 276</p> <p>9.5 Conclusions 278</p> <p>References 279</p> <p><b>10 Crystallization Properties of Milk Fats 283<br /> </b><i>Christelle Lopez</i></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 283</p> <p>10.2 Milk Fat: A Wide Diversity of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols (TAGs) 284</p> <p>10.3 Crystallization Properties of Bovine Anhydrous Milk Fat (AMF) 285</p> <p>10.3.1 Thermal Properties 285</p> <p>10.3.2 Effect of Cooling Rate on AMF Crystals 286</p> <p>10.3.3 Effect of Shear on AMF Crystals 295</p> <p>10.3.4 Effect of Minor Lipid Compounds 295</p> <p>10.4 Crystallization of TAGs in Bovine Milk Fat Globules and Emulsion Droplets 296</p> <p>10.4.1 Effect of Cooling Rate and Tempering 298</p> <p>10.4.2 Effect of the Size of Milk Fat Globules and Lipid Droplets 304</p> <p>10.5 Crystallization Properties of Milk Fat in Dairy Products 306</p> <p>10.6 Tag Compositions Affecting Crystallization Properties of Milk Fat 308</p> <p>10.6.1 Technological Process: Dry Fractionation 308</p> <p>10.6.2 Dietary Manipulations 312</p> <p>10.6.3 Milk Fat from Various Mammal Species 315</p> <p>10.7 Liquid Tag Phase 316</p> <p>10.8 Conclusions 317</p> <p>References 318</p> <p><b>11 Crystallization Behavior of Sunflower Oil–Based Fats for Edible Applications 323<br /> </b><i>Maria L. Herrera and Silvana Martini</i></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 323</p> <p>11.2 High Stearic High Oleic Sunflower Oil 324</p> <p>11.2.1 Fractionation of HSHO‐SFO 324</p> <p>11.2.2 Crystallization Behavior 326</p> <p>11.2.3 Polymorphic Behavior 329</p> <p>11.3 Blends of Sunflower Oil and Milk Fat 337</p> <p>11.3.1 Chemical Composition 340</p> <p>11.3.2 Physical Properties 340</p> <p>11.3.3 Addition of Palmitic Sucrose Ester 344</p> <p>11.4 HSHO‐Based CBE 347</p> <p>11.5 Conclusions 348</p> <p>References 348</p> <p><b>12 Physical Properties of Organogels Developed with Selected Low‐Molecular‐Weight Gelators 353<br /> </b><i>Jorge F. Toro‐Vazquez, Flor Alvarez‐Mitre, and Miriam Charó‐Alonso</i></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 353</p> <p>12.2 Basic Aspects of LMOGs: From Molecular Architecture to Functional Assemblies 355</p> <p>12.3 Why Developing Organogels with Vegetable Oils? 356</p> <p>12.3.1 Vegetable Oils as Solvent in the Development of Organogels with LMOGs 357</p> <p>12.3.2 Relationship between Molecular Structure of LMOGs and Physical Properties of Organogels 367</p> <p>12.4 Organogels of Candelilla Wax 373</p> <p>12.4.1 Rheological Properties of Candelilla Wax Organogels Developed Applying Shear Rate 373</p> <p>12.4.2 Applications of Candelilla Wax Organogels 377</p> <p>12.5 Conclusions 377</p> <p>References 379</p> <p><b>13 Formation and Properties of Biopolymer‐Based Oleogels 385<br /> </b><i>Ashok R. Patel</i></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 385</p> <p>13.2 Formation of Polymer‐Based Oleogels 386</p> <p>13.2.1 Polymer Oleogelation through Direct Methods 387</p> <p>13.2.2 Polymer Oleogelation through Indirect Methods 389</p> <p>13.3 Properties of Polymer‐Based Oleogels 393</p> <p>13.3.1 Mechanical Properties 393</p> <p>13.3.2 Temperature Sensitivity 394</p> <p>13.3.3 Stability in Presence of Water 397</p> <p>13.4 Potential Applications of Polymer‐Based Oleogels 397</p> <p>13.4.1 Replacement of Beef Fat in Frankfurters 397</p> <p>13.4.2 Heat‐Resistant Chocolates 397</p> <p>13.4.3 Polymer Oleogels as Alternative to Full‐Fat Shortenings 397</p> <p>13.4.4 Bakery Applications of Ethyl Cellulose Oleogels 398</p> <p>13.5 Conclusions: Opportunities and Challenges 398</p> <p>Acknowledgments 401</p> <p>References 402</p> <p><b>14 Lipid Crystallization in Water‐in‐Oil Emulsions 405<br /> </b><i>Nicole L. Green and Dérick Rousseau</i></p> <p>14.1 Introduction 405</p> <p>14.2 Basics of Emulsion Properties 406</p> <p>14.3 Emulsifier Effects on W/O Emulsions 408</p> <p>14.3.1 Mono‐ and Diacylglycerols (E471) 409</p> <p>14.3.2 Sucrose Fatty‐Acid Esters (E473) 411</p> <p>14.3.3 Lecithins (E322) 412</p> <p>14.3.4 Sorbitan Esters and Polyesters (E491‐E496) 413</p> <p>14.3.5 Polyglycerol Esters (E475 – E476) 415</p> <p>14.4 Stabilization Modes of W/O Emulsions 415</p> <p>14.4.1 Pickering Stabilization 416</p> <p>14.4.2 Network Stabilization 420</p> <p>14.4.3 Combined Pickering and Network Stabilization 421</p> <p>14.5 Conclusions 423</p> <p>References 424</p> <p><b>15 Crystallization of Lipids in Oil‐in‐Water Emulsion States 431<br /> </b><i>John N. Coupland</i></p> <p>15.1 The Basic Concepts 431</p> <p>15.2 Surface Nucleation 432</p> <p>15.3 Polymorphic Transitions in Droplets 436</p> <p>15.4 Morphology of Crystalline Droplets 437</p> <p>15.5 Colloidal Stability of Crystalline Droplets 439</p> <p>15.6 Conclusions 442</p> <p>References 443</p> <p><b>16 Lipid Crystals and Microstructures in Animal Meat Tissues 447<br /> </b><i>Michiyo Motoyama, Genya Watanabe, and Keisuke Sasaki</i></p> <p>16.1 Introduction 447</p> <p>16.2 Depot Fat and Crystalline State 448</p> <p>16.2.1 Adipose Tissue 448</p> <p>16.2.2 Triacylglycerol (TAG) Compositions of Animal Fats 449</p> <p>16.3 Fat Crystals and Quality of Porcine Adipose Tissue 450</p> <p>16.3.1 Polymorphism of Extracted Porcine Fat Crystals 450</p> <p>16.3.2 Fat Crystals and Macroscopic Meat Quality 454</p> <p>16.3.3 Application to Actual Meat and Meat Products 455</p> <p>16.4 Crystal Microstructures in Adipose Tissues 460</p> <p>16.5 Concluding Remarks 462</p> <p>Acknowledgments 462</p> <p>References 462</p> <p><b>17 Conventional and New Techniques to Monitor Lipid Crystallization 465<br /> </b><i>Annelien Rigolle, Koen Van Den Abeele, and Imogen Foubert</i></p> <p>17.1 Introduction: What Would Be a Perfect Technique? 465</p> <p>17.2 Conventional Techniques (and Advances Made) 466</p> <p>17.2.1 Pulsed Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 466</p> <p>17.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 469</p> <p>17.2.3 X‐Ray Diffraction 472</p> <p>17.2.4 Rheology 474</p> <p>17.2.5 Microscopy 476</p> <p>17.3 “New” Techniques with Potential for Online Monitoring 478</p> <p>17.3.1 Ultrasonic Techniques 478</p> <p>17.3.2 Laser Backscattering 484</p> <p>17.3.3 Near‐Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 485</p> <p>17.4 Conclusions 485</p> <p>Acknowledgments 486</p> <p>References 487</p> <p>Index 493</p>

<p> <strong>About the Editor<br> KIYOTAKA SATO</strong> is Professor Emeritus, Hiroshima University, Japan.

<p> <strong>An authoritative reference that contains the most up-to-date information, knowledge, approaches, and applications of lipid crystals </strong> <p> <em>Crystallization of Lipids</em> is a comprehensive resource that offers the most current and emerging knowledge, techniques and applications of lipid crystals. With contributions from noted experts in the field, the text covers the basic research of polymorphic structures, molecular interactions, nucleation and crystal growth and crystal network formation of lipid crystals which comprise main functional materials employed in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry. The authors highlight<em> trans</em>-fat alternative and saturated-fat reduction technology to lipid crystallization. These two issues are the most significant challenges in the edible-application technology of lipids, and a key solution is lipid crystallization. <p> The text focuses on the crystallization processes of lipids under various external influences of thermal fluctuation, ultrasound irradiation, shear, emulsification and additives. Designed to be practical, the book's information can be applied to realistic applications of lipids to foods, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. This authoritative and up-to-date guide: <ul> <li>Highlights cutting-edge research tools designed to help analyse lipid crystallization with the most current and the conventional techniques</li> <li>Offers a thorough review of the information, techniques and applications of lipid crystals</li> <li>Includes contributions from noted experts in the field of lipid crystals</li> <li>Presents cutting-edge information on the topics of trans-fat alterative and saturated-fat reduction technology</li> </ul> <br> <p> Written for research and development technologists as well as academics, this important resource contains research on lipid crystals which comprise the main functional materials employed in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry.

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