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<p>Preface xv</p> <p>About the Authors xvii</p> <p><b>1 Introduction to Membrane Technology 1<br /> </b><i>Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>1.1 Overview of Membrane Technology 1</p> <p>1.2 Conventional Membrane Separation Processes 2</p> <p>1.2.1 Microfiltration (MF) 2</p> <p>1.2.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 2</p> <p>1.2.3 Nanofiltration (NF) 3</p> <p>1.2.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 3</p> <p>1.2.5 Electrodialysis (ED) 4</p> <p>1.2.6 Pervaporation (PV) 5</p> <p>1.3 Molecular Weight Cutoff (MWCO) 8</p> <p>1.4 Concentration Polarization 9</p> <p>1.5 Membrane Fouling 10</p> <p>1.6 Diafiltration 11</p> <p>1.7 Historical Perspective 11</p> <p>1.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Challenges 12</p> <p>References 14</p> <p><b>2 Introduction to Membrane Contactor Technology 17<br /> </b><i>Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>2.1 Membrane Contactor Separation Processes 17</p> <p>2.1.1 Membrane Contactors 17</p> <p>2.1.2 History and Background of Membrane Contactors 20</p> <p>2.1.3 Types of Membrane Contactor Systems 21</p> <p>2.1.3.1 Solid Porous Membrane as Medium of Contact in Membrane Contactors 21</p> <p>2.1.3.2 Liquid Membrane Contactors 30</p> <p>2.1.4 Membrane Contactor Integrated Systems 34</p> <p>2.1.5 Potential of Membrane Contactor in Concentration, Temperature Polarization, Wetting, and Fouling of Membranes 35</p> <p>2.2 Conclusion and Future Trends of Membrane Contactors 37</p> <p>References 38</p> <p><b>3 Transport Theory in Membrane Contactor: Operational Principle 45<br /> </b><i>Mohammad Younas, Waheed Ur Rehman, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>3.1 Diffusional Mass and Heat Transfer Modeling 45</p> <p>3.2 Membrane Characterization Models 46</p> <p>3.2.1 Contact Angle and Liquid Entry Pressure 46</p> <p>3.2.2 Liquid Entry Pressure (LEP) 49</p> <p>3.2.3 Permporometry (Pore Size Distribution) 52</p> <p>3.2.4 Electron Microscopy 52</p> <p>3.3 Transport Models in Liquid–Liquid Contactor 52</p> <p>3.3.1 Resistance in Series Model 55</p> <p>3.3.1.1 Model Approach 56</p> <p>3.3.1.2 Two Film Theory 56</p> <p>3.3.1.3 Phase Equilibrium in Liquid–Liquid System 58</p> <p>3.3.1.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient 59</p> <p>3.4 Transport Model in Gas–Liquid Systems 60</p> <p>3.4.1 Phase Equilibrium for Gas–Liquid System 61</p> <p>3.4.2 Resistance in Series Model 61</p> <p>3.5 Reactive Diffusion in Liquid-Side Boundary Layer 62</p> <p>3.6 Mass Transfer Resistance Analysis 63</p> <p>3.7 Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients 65</p> <p>3.7.1 Correlation for Flow in Shell Side 66</p> <p>3.7.2 Correlation for Flow in Tube Side 66</p> <p>3.7.3 Correlation for Mass Transfer in Membrane Pores 68</p> <p>3.8 Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficients 69</p> <p>3.9 Interfacial Transfer Area 70</p> <p>3.10 Axial Pressure Drop in Membrane Contactor Module 71</p> <p>3.11 Dynamic Modeling 71</p> <p>3.12 Transfer Units and Module Design Length 72</p> <p>3.13 Numerical Modeling of Mass Transport in Membrane Contactor Modules 73</p> <p>3.13.1 Mass Transfer in Shell Side 75</p> <p>3.13.2 Mass Transfer Inside Fibers 77</p> <p>3.13.3 Mass Transfer in Membrane Pores 78</p> <p>3.13.4 Numerical Modeling Term in the Case of Membrane Wetting 79</p> <p>3.14 Numerical Modeling of Heat Transport in Membrane Contactor Modules 81</p> <p>3.14.1 Governing Equation in Cold and Hot Channels 82</p> <p>3.14.2 Governing Equation Inside Membrane 82</p> <p>3.15 Model Solution Algorithm 83</p> <p>3.16 Conclusions and Perspectives 84</p> <p>3.A Membrane Transport Theory: Operational Principle 84</p> <p>3.A.1 Steady-State Resistance-in-Series Model Across Liquid–Liquid Contactor 84</p> <p>3.A.1.1 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 84</p> <p>3.A.1.2 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 85</p> <p>3.A.1.3 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 85</p> <p>3.A.1.4 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 85</p> <p>3.A.1.5 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 86</p> <p>3.A.1.6 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 86</p> <p>3.A.1.7 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 86</p> <p>3.A.1.8 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 87</p> <p>3.A.1.9 Composite Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 87</p> <p>3.A.1.10 Composite Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 87</p> <p>3.A.1.11 Composite Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 87</p> <p>3.A.1.12 Composite Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 88</p> <p>3.A.2 Steady-State Resistance-in-Series Model Across Gas–Liquid Contactor 88</p> <p>3.A.2.1 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 88</p> <p>3.A.2.2 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 88</p> <p>3.A.2.3 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 89</p> <p>3.A.2.4 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 89</p> <p>3.A.2.5 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 89</p> <p>3.A.2.6 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 90</p> <p>3.A.2.7 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 90</p> <p>3.A.2.8 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 91</p> <p>3.A.2.9 Composite Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 91</p> <p>3.A.2.10 Composite Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 91</p> <p>3.A.2.11 Composite Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 91</p> <p>3.A.2.12 Composite Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 92</p> <p>3.A.3 Dynamic Modeling Across the Storage Tank 92</p> <p>References 93</p> <p><b>4 Module Design and Membrane Materials 99<br /> </b><i>Nabilah Fazil, Sidra Saqib, Ahmad Mukhtar, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 99</p> <p>4.2 Membrane Module Design Configuration 100</p> <p>4.2.1 Plate-and-Frame Modules 100</p> <p>4.2.2 Spiral Wound Modules 103</p> <p>4.2.3 Tubular Modules 104</p> <p>4.2.4 Hollow Fiber Modules 106</p> <p>4.3 Membrane Contactor Module Housing 111</p> <p>4.4 Membrane Module Flow Configuration 116</p> <p>4.5 Membrane Materials 116</p> <p>4.5.1 Polymer Materials 118</p> <p>4.5.2 Inorganic Fillers 125</p> <p>4.6 Membrane and Membrane Module for Membrane Distillation (MD) and Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) 126</p> <p>4.7 Solvents Used in Membrane Synthesis 128</p> <p>4.8 Membrane Synthesis Techniques 128</p> <p>4.9 Conclusions 130</p> <p>4.10 Future Perspective 131</p> <p>References 131</p> <p><b>5 Mode of Operation in Membrane Contactors 143<br /> </b><i>Waheed Ur Rehman, Zarrar Salahuddin, Sarah Farrukh, Muhammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD) 143</p> <p>5.1.1 Basic Principles of MD Process 143</p> <p>5.1.2 MD Configurations 144</p> <p>5.1.3 Overall Driving Force 145</p> <p>5.1.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 147</p> <p>5.1.4.1 Feed-Side Mass Transfer 148</p> <p>5.1.4.2 Membrane Mass Transfer 150</p> <p>5.1.4.3 Strip-Side Mass Transfer 151</p> <p>5.1.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, <i>Θ_v</i> <i>152</i></p> <p>5.1.5.1 DCMD 152</p> <p>5.1.5.2 Feed–Side and Strip–Side Heat Transfer 153</p> <p>5.1.5.3 Membrane Heat Transfer 153</p> <p>5.1.6 AGMD 154</p> <p>5.1.6.1 SGMD 156</p> <p>5.1.7 VMD 157</p> <p>5.1.8 Membranes for MD Process 157</p> <p>5.1.9 Pros and Cons of MD Process 158</p> <p>5.1.10 Future Prospects of MD Process 161</p> <p>5.2 Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) 161</p> <p>5.2.1 Basic Principles of OMD Process 161</p> <p>5.2.2 Overall Mass Transfer 163</p> <p>5.2.2.1 Mass Transfer Across Feed Boundary Layer 163</p> <p>5.2.2.2 Mass Transfer Across Stripper Boundary Layer 163</p> <p>5.2.2.3 Mass Transfer Across Membrane 164</p> <p>5.2.2.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient for Feed and Stripper Side 164</p> <p>5.2.2.5 Mass Transfer Coefficient Across Membrane 164</p> <p>5.2.3 Stripping Solutions for OMD 165</p> <p>5.2.4 Membranes for OMD Process 166</p> <p>5.2.5 Pros and Cons of OMD Process 166</p> <p>5.3 Forward Osmosis 167</p> <p>5.3.1 Basic Principles of FO Process 167</p> <p>5.3.2 Calculation of the Osmotic Pressures 167</p> <p>5.3.3 Reverse Solute Flux in FO 170</p> <p>5.3.4 Membranes for FO Process 170</p> <p>5.3.5 Draw Solutes for FO Process 171</p> <p>5.3.6 Pros and Cons of FO Process 172</p> <p>5.4 Pressure-Retarded Osmosis 172</p> <p>5.4.1 Basic Principles of PRO Process 172</p> <p>5.4.2 Membranes for PRO Process 175</p> <p>5.4.3 Pros and Cons of PRO Process 176</p> <p>5.5 Conclusions 176</p> <p>References 176</p> <p><b>6 Applications of Membrane Contactor Technology in Wastewater Treatment 185<br /> </b><i>Ayesha Rehman, Xianhui Li, Sarah Farrukh, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 185</p> <p>6.2 Common Toxic Substances in Wastewater 187</p> <p>6.2.1 Phenols 187</p> <p>6.2.2 Heavy Metals 188</p> <p>6.2.3 Ammonia 188</p> <p>6.2.4 Hydrogen Sulfide 188</p> <p>6.2.5 Carbon Dioxide 188</p> <p>6.2.6 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 188</p> <p>6.2.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 189</p> <p>6.2.8 Nitrobenzene 189</p> <p>6.3 Environmental Risks of Wastewater 189</p> <p>6.4 Membrane Technology for Wastewater Treatment 190</p> <p>6.5 Membrane Contactor Technology for Removal of Organic Contaminants from Wastewater 193</p> <p>6.6 Removal of Inorganic Contaminants from Wastewater 200</p> <p>6.7 Polymer-Based Adsorption Membranes 202</p> <p>6.8 Ion-Exchange Nanoporous Membrane 204</p> <p>6.9 Micellar-Enhanced Ultrafiltration Membrane 204</p> <p>6.10 Membrane Materials for Water Treatment 205</p> <p>6.11 Membrane Materials for Microfiltration (MF) and Ultrafiltration (UF) 206</p> <p>6.12 Membrane Materials for Nanofiltration (NF) 206</p> <p>6.13 Membrane Materials for Reverse Osmosis (RO) 207</p> <p>6.14 Membrane Materials for Forward Osmosis (FO) 207</p> <p>6.15 Challenges in Membrane Materials to Prevent Fouling 208</p> <p>6.16 Conclusions and Perspectives 209</p> <p>References 210</p> <p><b>7 Applications of Membrane Contactors in Food Industry 219<br /> </b><i>Waheed Ur Rehman, Bazla Sarwar, Sidra Saqib, Ahmad Mukhtar, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 219</p> <p>7.2 Membrane Distillation (MD) Applications in Food Industry 219</p> <p>7.2.1 MD in the Concentration of Apple Juice 221</p> <p>7.2.2 MD in the Concentration of Orange Juice 222</p> <p>7.2.3 MD in the Concentration of Milk 222</p> <p>7.2.4 MD in the Treatment of Saline Dairy Waste Water 223</p> <p>7.2.5 MD in the Concentration of Muscadine Grape Pomace 224</p> <p>7.2.6 MD in the Recovery of Phenols from Olive Mill Wastewater 225</p> <p>7.2.7 MD in the Concentration of Sucrose Solution 225</p> <p>7.2.8 Effect of Operating Parameters on MD Flux 225</p> <p>7.3 Application of Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) in Food Industry 227</p> <p>7.3.1 Effect of Operating Conditions on OMD Water Flux 228</p> <p>7.3.2 OMD in the Concentration of Apple Juice 231</p> <p>7.3.3 OMD in the Concentration of Grape Juice 232</p> <p>7.3.4 OMD in the Concentration of Pomegranate Juice 233</p> <p>7.3.5 OMD in the Concentration of Orange Juice 235</p> <p>7.3.6 OMD in the Concentration of Cranberry and Noni Juices 235</p> <p>7.3.7 OMD in the Concentration of Kiwi and Pineapple Juices 236</p> <p>7.3.8 OMD in the Concentration of Tea Extracts 236</p> <p>7.3.9 Dealcoholization of Beer and Wine 237</p> <p>7.4 Coupled Operation of Osmotic Distillation and Membrane Distillation 238</p> <p>7.5 Conclusions 239</p> <p>7.6 Future Perspectives 239</p> <p>References 240</p> <p><b>8 Applications of Membrane Contactor Technology for Pre-combustion Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Capture 247<br /> </b><i>Zarrar Salahuddin, Sarah Farrukh, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>8.1 Introduction 247</p> <p>8.2 Why Pre-combustion Carbon Capture? 250</p> <p>8.3 Membranes for Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 250</p> <p>8.3.1 Hydrogen (H₂)-Selective Membranes 250</p> <p>8.3.2 CO₂ -Selective Membranes 255</p> <p>8.4 Advantages and Limitations of Pre-combustion Carbon Capture Using Membrane Technology 262</p> <p>8.5 Applications of Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 263</p> <p>8.6 Current Trends and Future Prospects 263</p> <p>8.7 Concluding and Future Directions 269</p> <p>References 269</p> <p><b>9 Application of Membrane Contactor Technology for Post-combustion Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Capture 281<br /> </b><i>Muhammad B. Wazir, Muhammad Daud, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 281</p> <p>9.2 Membranes for Post-combustion CO₂ Capture 282</p> <p>9.2.1 Membrane Types 282</p> <p>9.2.2 Membrane Modules 285</p> <p>9.3 Experimental Membrane Materials for Post-combustion CO₂ Sequestration 285</p> <p>9.4 Commercial Membranes for Post-combustion CO₂ Separation 288</p> <p>9.5 Cost of Post-combustion CO₂ Capture in Membrane Contactors 289</p> <p>9.6 Absorbents for Post-combustion CO₂ Separation 291</p> <p>9.6.1 Amine-Based Absorbents 291</p> <p>9.6.2 Ammonia 293</p> <p>9.6.3 Salt Solutions 294</p> <p>9.6.4 Ionic Liquids 295</p> <p>9.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective 295</p> <p>References 296</p> <p><b>10 Market Prospects of Membrane Contactors 305<br /> </b><i>Zahra Pezeshki, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>10.1 Membrane Contactor Market Dynamics 305</p> <p>10.2 Market Overview 306</p> <p>10.3 Membrane Contactor Market by Application 313</p> <p>10.3.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Market 313</p> <p>10.3.2 Food Processing Market 315</p> <p>10.3.3 Gas Separation Market 318</p> <p>10.3.4 Carbon Capture Market 321</p> <p>10.4 Membrane Contactor Market, by Membrane 321</p> <p>10.5 Membrane Contactor Market, by Region 325</p> <p>10.6 Recent Developments of Membrane Contactor Companies 328</p> <p>10.6.1 3M Company 328</p> <p>10.6.2 Cobetter Filtration Equipment Pvt. Ltd. 329</p> <p>10.6.3 Eurowater 329</p> <p>10.6.4 JU.CLA.S Srl 329</p> <p>10.6.5 Veolia Environnement SA 329</p> <p>10.6.6 PTI Pacific Pty. Ltd. 330</p> <p>10.6.7 Kværner ASA 330</p> <p>10.6.8 Lenntech B.V. 330</p> <p>10.6.9 Pure Water Group 330</p> <p>10.6.10 TNO Company 330</p> <p>10.6.11 Euwa H. H. Eumann GmbH (Euwa) 330</p> <p>10.6.12 Hydro-Elektrik GmbH 331</p> <p>10.6.13 KH TEC GmbH 331</p> <p>10.6.14 Romfil GmbH 331</p> <p>10.7 Future Directions 331</p> <p>10.8 Conclusion 332</p> <p>References 332</p> <p><b>11 Conclusions and Perspective 337<br /> </b><i>Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi</i></p> <p>11.1 Future Directions 340</p> <p>Index 342</p>

<p><i><b>Mohammad Younas, PhD,</b> is Department Head of Chemical Engineering at the University of Engineering & Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan. His research is focused on the modeling and simulation of membrane contactors.</i></p> <p><i><b>Mashallah Rezekazemi, PhD,</b> is Professor of the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at the Shahrood University of Technology. His research is focused on membrane-based processes for energy-efficient desalination, CO2 capture, gas separation, and wastewater reuse.</i>

<p><b>An eye-opening exploration of membrane contactors from a group of industry leaders</b></p> <p>In <i>Membrane Contactor Technology: Water Treatment, Food Processing, Gas Separation, and Carbon Capture,</i> an expert team of researchers delivers an up-to-date and insightful explanation of membrane contactor technology, including transport phenomena, design aspects, and diverse process applications. The book also includes explorations of membrane synthesis, process, and module design, as well as rarely discussed process modeling and simulation techniques. <p>The authors discuss the technical and economic aspects of this increasingly important technology and examine the geometry, flow, energy and mass transport, and design aspects of membrane contactor modules. They also cover a wide range of application opportunities for this technology, from the materials sciences to process engineering. <p><i>Membrane Contactor Technology</i> also includes: <ul><li>A thorough introduction to the membrane contactor extraction process, including dispersion-free membrane extraction processes and supported liquid membrane processes</li> <li>Comprehensive explorations of membrane transport theory, including discussions of diffusional mass and heat transfer modeling, as well as numerical modeling</li> <li>In-depth examinations of module configuration and geometry, including design and flow configuration</li> <li>Practical discussions of modes or operation, including membrane distillation, osmotic evaporation, and forward osmosis</li></ul> <p>Perfect for process engineers, biotechnologists, water chemists, and membrane scientists, <i>Membrane Contactor Technology</i> also belongs in the libraries of chemical engineers, polymer chemists, and chemists working in the environmental industry.

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