Details

Resistive Switching


Resistive Switching

From Fundamentals of Nanoionic Redox Processes to Memristive Device Applications
1. Aufl.

von: Daniele Ielmini, Rainer Waser

196,99 €

Verlag: Wiley-VCH
Format: PDF
Veröffentl.: 28.12.2015
ISBN/EAN: 9783527680948
Sprache: englisch
Anzahl Seiten: 784

DRM-geschütztes eBook, Sie benötigen z.B. Adobe Digital Editions und eine Adobe ID zum Lesen.

Beschreibungen

With its comprehensive coverage, this reference introduces readers to the wide topic of resistance switching, providing the knowledge, tools, and methods needed to understand, characterize and apply resistive switching memories. <br> Starting with those materials that display resistive switching behavior, the book explains the basics of resistive switching as well as switching mechanisms and models. An in-depth discussion of memory reliability is followed by chapters on memory cell structures and architectures, while a section on logic gates rounds off the text.<br> An invaluable self-contained book for materials scientists, electrical engineers and physicists dealing with memory research and development.<br>
<p>Preface XIX</p> <p>List of Contributors XXI</p> <p><b>1 Introduction to Nanoionic Elements for Information Technology 1</b><br /><i>Rainer Waser, Daniele Ielmini, Hiro Akinaga, Hisashi Shima, H.-S. Philip Wong, Joshua J. Yang, and Simon Yu</i></p> <p>1.1 Concept of Two-Terminal Memristive Elements 1</p> <p>1.1.1 Classifications Based on Behavior, Mechanisms, and Operation Modes 1</p> <p>1.1.2 Scope of the Book 6</p> <p>1.1.3 History 9</p> <p>1.2 Memory Applications 12</p> <p>1.2.1 Performance Requirements and ParameterWindows 12</p> <p>1.2.2 Device Isolation in Crossbar Arrays 16</p> <p>1.2.3 3-D Technology 19</p> <p>1.2.4 Memory Hierarchy 20</p> <p>1.3 Logic Circuits 21</p> <p>1.4 Prospects and Challenges 24</p> <p>Acknowledgments 25</p> <p>References 25</p> <p><b>2 ReRAM Cells in the Framework of Two-Terminal Devices 31</b><br /><i>E. Linn, M. Di Ventra, and Y. V. Pershin</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 31</p> <p>2.2 Two-Terminal Device Models 32</p> <p>2.2.1 Lumped Elements 32</p> <p>2.2.2 Ideal Circuit Element Approach 32</p> <p>2.2.3 Dynamical Systems Approach 33</p> <p>2.2.3.1 Memristive Systems 33</p> <p>2.2.3.2 Memristor 34</p> <p>2.2.4 Significance of the Initial Memristor and Memristive System Definitions in the Light of Physics 34</p> <p>2.2.4.1 Limitations of Ideal Memristor Models 35</p> <p>2.2.5 Memristive, Memcapacitive, and Meminductive Systems 35</p> <p>2.2.6 ReRAM: Combination of Elements, Combination of Memory Features, and Consideration of Inherent Battery Effects 36</p> <p>2.3 Fundamental Description of Electronic Devices with Memory 38</p> <p>2.4 Device Engineer’s View on ReRAM Devices as Two-Terminal Elements 40</p> <p>2.4.1 Modeling of Electrochemical Metallization (ECM) Devices 41</p> <p>2.4.2 Modeling of Valence Change Mechanism (VCM) Devices 43</p> <p>2.5 Conclusions 46</p> <p>Acknowledgment 47</p> <p>References 47</p> <p><b>3 Atomic and Electronic Structure of Oxides 49</b><br /><i>Tobias Zacherle, Peter C. Schmidt, and Manfred Martin</i></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 49</p> <p>3.2 Crystal Structures 50</p> <p>3.3 Electronic Structure 54</p> <p>3.3.1 From Free Atoms to the Solid State 55</p> <p>3.3.2 Electrons in Crystals 58</p> <p>3.3.2.1 Free Electron Model (Sommerfeld Model) 58</p> <p>3.3.2.2 Band Structure Model 60</p> <p>3.3.2.3 Density of States (DOS) and Partial DOS 62</p> <p>3.3.2.4 Crystal Field Splitting 64</p> <p>3.3.2.5 Exchange and Correlation 65</p> <p>3.3.2.6 Computational Details 66</p> <p>3.4 Material Classes and Characterization of the Electronic States 67</p> <p>3.4.1 Metals 67</p> <p>3.4.2 Semiconductors 68</p> <p>3.4.3 Insulators 71</p> <p>3.4.4 Point Defect States 72</p> <p>3.4.5 Surface States 73</p> <p>3.4.6 Amorphous States 75</p> <p>3.5 Electronic Structure of Selected Oxides 76</p> <p>3.5.1 Nontransition Metal Oxides 76</p> <p>3.5.1.1 Al2O3 76</p> <p>3.5.1.2 SrO 77</p> <p>3.5.1.3 ZnO 77</p> <p>3.5.2 Titanates 79</p> <p>3.5.2.1 TiO 79</p> <p>3.5.2.2 Ti2O3 79</p> <p>3.5.2.3 TiO2 81</p> <p>3.5.2.4 SrTiO3 82</p> <p>3.5.3 Magnetic Insulators 82</p> <p>3.5.3.1 NiO 84</p> <p>3.5.3.2 MnO 85</p> <p>3.5.4 MVB Metal Oxides 86</p> <p>3.5.4.1 Metal–Insulator Transitions: NbO2, VO2, and V2O3 86</p> <p>3.5.4.2 Tantalum Oxides TaOx 87</p> <p>3.6 Ellingham Diagram for Binary Oxides 90</p> <p>Acknowledgments 91</p> <p>References 91</p> <p><b>4 Defect Structure of Metal Oxides 95</b><br /><i>Giuliano Gregori</i></p> <p>4.1 Definition of Defects 95</p> <p>4.1.1 Zero-Dimensional Defects 95</p> <p>4.1.2 One-Dimensional Defects 95</p> <p>4.1.3 Two-Dimensional Defects 97</p> <p>4.1.4 Three-Dimensional Defects 97</p> <p>4.2 General Considerations on the EquilibriumThermodynamics of Point Defects 98</p> <p>4.3 Definition of Point Defects 99</p> <p>4.3.1 Intrinsic Defects 99</p> <p>4.3.1.1 Frenkel Defects 99</p> <p>4.3.1.2 Anti-Frenkel Defects 99</p> <p>4.3.1.3 Schottky Defects 100</p> <p>4.3.1.4 Anti-Schottky Defects 100</p> <p>4.3.1.5 Electron Band–Band Transfer 100</p> <p>4.3.2 Extrinsic Defects 100</p> <p>4.3.2.1 Reactions with the Environment 100</p> <p>4.3.2.2 The Brouwer Diagram 101</p> <p>4.3.2.3 Impurities and Dopants 102</p> <p>4.4 Space-Charge Effects 103</p> <p>4.4.1 Mott–Schottky Situation 104</p> <p>4.4.2 Gouy–Chapman Situation 105</p> <p>4.5 Case Studies 106</p> <p>4.5.1 Titanium Oxide (Rutile) 106</p> <p>4.5.1.1 Nominally Pure TiO2 107</p> <p>4.5.1.2 Acceptor-Doped TiO2 108</p> <p>4.5.1.3 Donor-Doped TiO2 108</p> <p>4.5.1.4 The Role of Dislocations 109</p> <p>4.5.2 Strontium Titanate 110</p> <p>4.5.2.1 Acceptor-Doped SrTiO3 110</p> <p>4.5.2.2 Donor-Doped SrTiO3 111</p> <p>4.5.2.3 Grain Boundaries in SrTiO3 111</p> <p>4.5.3 Zirconium and Hafnium Oxide 113</p> <p>4.5.3.1 Zirconium Oxide 113</p> <p>4.5.3.2 The Role of Grain Boundaries and Dislocations 115</p> <p>4.5.3.3 Hafnium Oxide 116</p> <p>4.5.4 Aluminum Oxide 116</p> <p>4.5.4.1 Acceptor-Doped Alumina 117</p> <p>4.5.4.2 Donor-Doped Alumina 118</p> <p>4.5.5 Tantalum Oxide 119</p> <p>References 121</p> <p><b>5 Ion Transport in Metal Oxides 125</b><br /><i>Roger A. De Souza</i></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 125</p> <p>5.2 Macroscopic Definition 126</p> <p>5.2.1 Two Solutions of the Diffusion Equation 127</p> <p>5.2.2 Dependence of the Diffusion Coefficient on Characteristic Thermodynamic Parameters 128</p> <p>5.3 Microscopic Definition 129</p> <p>5.3.1 Mechanisms of Diffusion 130</p> <p>5.3.2 Diffusion Coefficients of Defects and Ions 131</p> <p>5.3.3 The Activation Barrier for Migration 132</p> <p>5.4 Types of Diffusion Experiments 134</p> <p>5.4.1 Chemical Diffusion 135</p> <p>5.4.2 Tracer Diffusion 137</p> <p>5.4.3 Conductivity 139</p> <p>5.5 Mass Transport along and across Extended Defects 141</p> <p>5.5.1 Accelerated Transport along Extended Defects 143</p> <p>5.5.2 Hindered Transport across Extended Defects 145</p> <p>5.6 Case Studies 145</p> <p>5.6.1 Strontium Titanate 147</p> <p>5.6.2 Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) 150</p> <p>5.6.3 Alumina 153</p> <p>5.6.4 Tantalum Pentoxide 155</p> <p>Acknowledgments 156</p> <p>References 157</p> <p><b>6 Electrical Transport in Transition Metal Oxides 165</b><br /><i>Franklin J.Wong and Shriram Ramanathan</i></p> <p>6.1 Overview 165</p> <p>6.2 Structure of Transition Metal Oxides 166</p> <p>6.2.1 Crystal Structures of Oxides 166</p> <p>6.2.2 Bonding and Electronic Structure 167</p> <p>6.3 Models of Electrical Transport 168</p> <p>6.3.1 Band Transport of Carriers 168</p> <p>6.3.2 Electronic Bandwidth 169</p> <p>6.3.3 Small Polaron Formation 169</p> <p>6.3.4 Small Polaron Transport 171</p> <p>6.3.5 Thermopower (Seebeck Coefficient) 172</p> <p>6.3.6 Hopping Transport via Defect States 172</p> <p>6.3.7 Bad Metallic Behavior 174</p> <p>6.4 Band Insulators 175</p> <p>6.4.1 SnO2: 3d10 System 175</p> <p>6.4.2 TiO2: 3d0 System 176</p> <p>6.5 Half-Filled Mott Insulators 177</p> <p>6.5.1 Correlations and the Hubbard U 177</p> <p>6.5.2 MnO: 3d5 System 179</p> <p>6.5.3 NiO: 3d8 System 179</p> <p>6.5.4 α-Fe2O3: 3d5 System 182</p> <p>6.5.5 Summary 184</p> <p>6.6 Temperature-Induced Metal–Insulator Transitions in Oxides 184</p> <p>6.6.1 Orbitals and Metal–Insulator Transitions 184</p> <p>6.6.2 VO2: 3d1 System 186</p> <p>6.6.3 Ti2O3: 3d1 System 187</p> <p>6.6.4 V2O3: 3d2 System 189</p> <p>6.6.5 Fe3O4: Mixed-Valent System 190</p> <p>6.6.6 Limitations 191</p> <p>6.6.7 Summary 192</p> <p>References 193</p> <p><b>7 Quantum Point Contact Conduction 197</b><br /><i>Jan van Ruitenbeek, Monica Morales Masis, and Enrique Miranda</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 197</p> <p>7.2 Conductance Quantization in Metallic Nanowires 197</p> <p>7.3 Conductance Quantization in Electrochemical Metallization Cells 204</p> <p>7.3.1 Current–Voltage Characteristics and Definition of Initial Device Resistance 206</p> <p>7.3.2 Stepwise Conductance Changes in Metallic Filaments 207</p> <p>7.4 Filamentary Conduction and Quantization Effects in Binary Oxides 210</p> <p>7.5 Conclusion and Outlook 218</p> <p>References 218</p> <p><b>8 Dielectric Breakdown Processes 225</b><br />Jordi Su˜né, Nagarajan Raghavan, and K. L. Pey</p> <p>8.1 Introduction 225</p> <p>8.2 Basics of Dielectric Breakdown 226</p> <p>8.3 Physics of Defect Generation 231</p> <p>8.3.1 Thermochemical Model of Defect Generation 232</p> <p>8.3.2 Anode Hydrogen Release Model of Defect Generation 233</p> <p>8.4 Breakdown and Oxide Failure Statistics 235</p> <p>8.5 Implications of Breakdown Statistics for ReRAM 237</p> <p>8.6 Chemistry of the Breakdown Path and Inference on Filament Formation 241</p> <p>8.7 Summary and Conclusions 246</p> <p>References 247</p> <p><b>9 Physics and Chemistry of Nanoionic Cells 253</b><br /><i>Ilia Valov and Rainer Waser</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 253</p> <p>9.2 Basic Thermodynamics and Heterogeneous Equilibria 254</p> <p>9.3 Phase Boundaries and Boundary Layers 258</p> <p>9.3.1 Driving Force for the Formation of Space-Charge Layers 258</p> <p>9.3.2 Enrichment andWeak Depletion Layers 260</p> <p>9.3.3 Strong Depletion Layers 261</p> <p>9.3.4 Nanosize Effects on Space-Charge Regions 263</p> <p>9.3.5 Nanosize Effects due to Surface Curvature 265</p> <p>9.3.6 Formation of New Phases at Phase Boundaries 265</p> <p>9.4 Nucleation and Growth 266</p> <p>9.4.1 Macroscopic View 266</p> <p>9.4.2 Atomistic Theory 267</p> <p>9.5 Electromotive Force 269</p> <p>9.5.1 Electrochemical Cells of Different Half Cells 269</p> <p>9.5.2 Emf Caused by Surface Curvature Effects 270</p> <p>9.5.3 Emf Caused by Concentration Differences 271</p> <p>9.5.4 Diffusion Potentials 273</p> <p>9.6 General Transport Processes and Chemical Reactions 274</p> <p>9.7 Solid-State Reactions 275</p> <p>9.8 Electrochemical (Electrode) Reactions 280</p> <p>9.8.1 Charge-Transfer Process Limitations 280</p> <p>9.8.2 Diffusion-Limited Electrochemical Processes 282</p> <p>9.9 Stoichiometry Polarization 283</p> <p>Summary 285</p> <p>Acknowledgments 286</p> <p>References 286</p> <p><b>10 Electroforming Processes in Metal Oxide Resistive-Switching Cells 289</b><br /><i>Doo Seok Jeong, Byung Joon Choi, and Cheol Seong Hwang</i></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 289</p> <p>10.1.1 Forming Methods 290</p> <p>10.1.2 Dependence of the Bipolar Switching Behavior on the Forming Conditions 291</p> <p>10.1.3 Factors Influencing Forming Behavior 294</p> <p>10.1.4 Forming in Bipolar and Unipolar Switching 295</p> <p>10.1.5 Phenomenological Understanding of Forming 297</p> <p>10.2 Forming Mechanisms 297</p> <p>10.2.1 Early Suggested Forming Mechanisms 298</p> <p>10.2.2 Conducting Filament Formation 298</p> <p>10.2.3 Redox Reactions and Ion or Ionic Defect Migration during Forming 300</p> <p>10.2.4 Point Defect Introduction 302</p> <p>10.2.5 Point Defect Dynamics during the Forming Process 304</p> <p>10.2.6 Microscopic Evidence for CF Formation during Forming 308</p> <p>10.3 Technical Issues Related to Forming 310</p> <p>10.3.1 Problems of Current Overshoot Forming 310</p> <p>10.3.2 Nonuniform Forming Voltage Distribution 311</p> <p>10.3.3 Forming-Free Resistive Switching 311</p> <p>10.4 Summary and Outlook 312</p> <p>Acknowledgments 313</p> <p>References 313</p> <p><b>11 Universal Switching Behavior 317</b><br /><i>Daniele Ielmini and StephanMenzel</i></p> <p>11.1 General Properties of ReRAMs and Their Universal Behavior 317</p> <p>11.2 Explaining the Universal Switching of ReRAM 320</p> <p>11.3 Variable-Diameter Model 321</p> <p>11.4 Variable-Gap Model 329</p> <p>11.5 Coexistence of Variable-Gap/Variable-Diameter States 334</p> <p>11.6 Summary 337</p> <p>Acknowledgment 337</p> <p>References 338</p> <p><b>12 Quasistatic and PulseMeasuring Techniques 341</b><br /><i>Antonio Torrezan, Gilberto Medeiros-Ribeiro, and Stephan Tiedke</i></p> <p>12.1 Brief Introduction to Electronic Transport Testing of ReRAM 341</p> <p>12.2 Quasistatic Measurement of Current–Voltage Characteristics 342</p> <p>12.2.1 Dependence of Switching Parameters on Sweep Rate 345</p> <p>12.3 Current Compliance and Overshoot Effects 346</p> <p>12.4 Pulsed Measurements for the Study of Switching Dynamics 350</p> <p>12.4.1 Experimental Setup and Results for Nanosecond Switching with Real-Time Monitoring of Device Dynamics 353</p> <p>12.4.2 Experimental Setup and Results for Subnanosecond Switching with Real-Time Monitoring of Device Dynamics 354</p> <p>12.5 Conclusions 358</p> <p>Acknowledgment 359</p> <p>References 359</p> <p><b>13 Unipolar Resistive-Switching Mechanisms 363</b><br /><i>Ludovic Goux and Sabina Spiga</i></p> <p>13.1 Introduction to Unipolar Resistive Switching 363</p> <p>13.2 Principle of Unipolar Switching 364</p> <p>13.2.1 Basic Operation of Unipolar Memory Cells 364</p> <p>13.2.2 Structure of Unipolar Memory Arrays 365</p> <p>13.2.3 Experimental Evidences of Filamentary-Switching Mechanism 366</p> <p>13.2.4 Typical Materials Used in Unipolar-Switching Cells 367</p> <p>13.3 Unipolar-Switching Mechanisms in Model System Pt/NiO/Pt 368</p> <p>13.3.1 Microscopic Origin of Switching in NiO Layers 368</p> <p>13.3.1.1 Defect Chemistry 368</p> <p>13.3.1.2 Microscopic Mechanism of the Switching 371</p> <p>13.3.2 Physics-Based Electrical Models 372</p> <p>13.3.2.1 Modeling of the Reset Switching 372</p> <p>13.3.2.2 Modeling of the Set Switching 373</p> <p>13.3.3 Model Implications on the Device Level 375</p> <p>13.3.3.1 CF Size and RLRS Scaling with IC 375</p> <p>13.3.3.2 Ireset Scaling with CF Size Scaling 376</p> <p>13.3.3.3 Switching Speed 377</p> <p>13.4 Influence of Oxide and Electrode Materials on Unipolar-Switching Mechanisms 379</p> <p>13.4.1 Influence of the Oxide Material 380</p> <p>13.4.1.1 The Specific Case of TiO2 380</p> <p>13.4.1.2 Influence of the Oxide Microstructure 380</p> <p>13.4.1.3 Random Circuit Breaker Model 381</p> <p>13.4.1.4 Coexistence of Bipolar and Unipolar Switching 382</p> <p>13.4.1.5 Switching Variability and Endurance 383</p> <p>13.4.2 Impacts and Roles of Electrodes 384</p> <p>13.4.2.1 Anode-Mediated Reset Operation 384</p> <p>13.4.2.2 Selection Criteria of Electrode Materials 385</p> <p>13.5 Conclusion 386</p> <p>References 387</p> <p><b>14 Modeling the VCM- and ECM-Type Switching Kinetics 395</b><br /><i>Stephan Menzel and Ji-Hyun Hur</i></p> <p>14.1 Introduction 395</p> <p>14.2 Microscopic Switching Mechanism of VCM Cells 395</p> <p>14.3 Microscopic Switching Mechanism of ECM Cells 397</p> <p>14.4 Classification of Simulation Approaches 398</p> <p>14.4.1 Ab initio and Molecular Dynamics Simulation Models 398</p> <p>14.4.2 Kinetic Monte Carlo Simulation Models 398</p> <p>14.4.3 Continuum Models 398</p> <p>14.4.4 Compact Models 399</p> <p>14.5 General Considerations of the Physical Origin of the Nonlinear Switching Kinetics 399</p> <p>14.6 Modeling of VCM Cells 402</p> <p>14.6.1 Ab initio Models and MD Models 402</p> <p>14.6.1.1 HRS and LRS State Modeling 402</p> <p>14.6.1.2 Electron Transfer 404</p> <p>14.6.1.3 Phase Transformations and Nucleation 405</p> <p>14.6.1.4 Calculation of Migration Barriers 406</p> <p>14.6.2 Kinetic Monte Carlo Modeling 407</p> <p>14.6.3 Continuum Modeling 410</p> <p>14.6.4 Compact Modeling 417</p> <p>14.7 Modeling of ECM Cells 422</p> <p>14.7.1 Ab initio Models and MD Models 422</p> <p>14.7.2 KMC Modeling 423</p> <p>14.7.3 Continuum Modeling 426</p> <p>14.7.4 Compact Modeling 428</p> <p>14.8 Summary and Outlook 431</p> <p>Acknowledgment 433</p> <p>References 433</p> <p><b>15 Valence Change Observed by Nanospectroscopy and Spectromicroscopy 437</b><br /><i>Christian Lenser, Regina Dittmann, and John Paul Strachan</i></p> <p>15.1 Introduction 437</p> <p>15.2 Methods and Techniques 439</p> <p>15.3 Interface Phenomena 442</p> <p>15.3.1 Reactive Metal Layers on Insulating Oxides 442</p> <p>15.3.2 Formation of a Blocking Layer on Conducting Oxides 443</p> <p>15.3.3 Electrically Induced Redox Reactions at the Interface 444</p> <p>15.4 Localized Redox Reactions in Transition Metal Oxides 446</p> <p>15.4.1 Single Crystalline Model System – Doped SrTiO3 446</p> <p>15.4.2 Localized Structural and Compositional Changes in TiO2 448</p> <p>15.4.3 Compositional Changes in Ta2O5 and HfO2 450</p> <p>15.5 Conclusions 453</p> <p>Acknowledgment 453</p> <p>References 453</p> <p><b>16 Interface-Type Switching 457</b><br /><i>Akihito Sawa and Rene Meyer</i></p> <p>16.1 Introduction 457</p> <p>16.2 Metal/Conducting Oxide Interfaces: I–V Characteristics and Fundamentals 459</p> <p>16.2.1 Schottky-Like Metal/Conducting Oxide Interfaces 459</p> <p>16.2.2 Electronic Properties of Donor-Doped SrTiO3 460</p> <p>16.2.3 Electronic Properties of Mixed-Valent Manganites 461</p> <p>16.3 Resistive Switching of Metal/Donor-Doped SrTiO3 Cells 463</p> <p>16.4 Resistive Switching of p-Type PCMO Cells 465</p> <p>16.5 Resistive Switching in the Presence of a Tunnel Barrier 469</p> <p>16.5.1 Device Structure and Materials 469</p> <p>16.5.2 Electrical Characteristics 470</p> <p>16.5.3 Mechanism and Modeling 472</p> <p>16.5.4 Passive Cross-Point Arrays 473</p> <p>16.6 Ferroelectric Resistive Switching 475</p> <p>16.6.1 Classification of Ferroelectric Resistive Switching 475</p> <p>16.6.2 Ferroelectric Resistive-Switching Diode 475</p> <p>16.7 Summary 479</p> <p>Acknowledgment 480</p> <p>References 480</p> <p><b>17 Electrochemical Metallization Memories 483</b><br /><i>Michael N. Kozicki, MariaMitkova, and Ilia Valov</i></p> <p>17.1 Introduction 483</p> <p>17.2 Metal Ion Conductors 484</p> <p>17.2.1 Materials 484</p> <p>17.2.2 Ion Transport 490</p> <p>17.3 Electrochemistry of CBRAM (ECM) Cells 492</p> <p>17.3.1 Fundamental Processes 492</p> <p>17.3.2 Filament Growth and Dissolution 495</p> <p>17.3.3 Filament Morphology 500</p> <p>17.4 Devices 503</p> <p>17.4.1 Device Operation 503</p> <p>17.4.2 Memory Arrays 506</p> <p>17.5 Technological Challenges and Future Directions 508</p> <p>Acknowledgment 509</p> <p>References 510</p> <p><b>18 Atomic Switches 515</b><br /><i>Kazuya Terabe, Tohru Tsuruoka, Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Alpana Nayak, Takeo Ohno, Tomonobu Nakayama, and Masakazu Aono</i></p> <p>18.1 Introduction 515</p> <p>18.1.1 Brief History of the Development of the Atomic Switch 516</p> <p>18.1.2 BasicWorking Principle of the Atomic Switch 517</p> <p>18.2 Gap-Type Atomic Switches 519</p> <p>18.2.1 Switching Time 519</p> <p>18.2.2 Electrochemical Process 521</p> <p>18.2.3 Cross-Bar Structure 523</p> <p>18.2.4 Quantized Conductance 524</p> <p>18.2.5 Logic-Gate Operation 526</p> <p>18.2.6 Synaptic Behavior 527</p> <p>18.2.7 Photo-Assisted Switch 528</p> <p>18.3 Gapless-Type Atomic Switches 529</p> <p>18.3.1 Sulfide-Based Switch 529</p> <p>18.3.2 Oxide-Based Switch 530</p> <p>18.3.3 Effect of Moisture 533</p> <p>18.3.4 Switching Time 534</p> <p>18.3.5 Quantized Conductance and Synaptic Behavior 535</p> <p>18.3.6 Polymer-Based Switch 536</p> <p>18.4 Three-Terminal Atomic Switches 537</p> <p>18.4.1 Filament-Growth-Controlled Type 537</p> <p>18.4.2 Nucleation-Controlled Type 539</p> <p>18.5 Summary 541</p> <p>References 542</p> <p><b>19 Scaling Limits of Nanoionic Devices 547</b><br /><i>Victor Zhirnov and Gurtej Sandhu</i></p> <p>19.1 Introduction 547</p> <p>19.2 Basic Operations of ICT Devices 547</p> <p>19.3 Minimal Nanoionic ICT 549</p> <p>19.3.1 Switching Mechanisms and the Material Systems 549</p> <p>19.3.2 Atomic Filament: Classical and Quantum Resistance 551</p> <p>19.3.2.1 Classical Resistance 551</p> <p>19.3.2.2 Quantum Resistance 552</p> <p>19.3.2.3 Conductance in the Presence of Barriers 553</p> <p>19.3.2.4 Barriers in Atomic Gaps: Nonrectangular Barrier 555</p> <p>19.3.2.5 Transmission through Atomic Gaps 555</p> <p>19.3.3 Interface Controlled Resistance (ICR) 556</p> <p>19.3.3.1 Electrical Properties of Material Interfaces 557</p> <p>19.3.3.2 Contact Resistance in a M–S (M–I) Structure 560</p> <p>19.3.4 Stability of the Minimal Nanoionic State 563</p> <p>19.4 Energetics of Nanoionic Devices 565</p> <p>19.4.1 Switching Speed and Energy 565</p> <p>19.4.2 Heat Dissipation and Transfer in a Minimal Nanoionic Device 567</p> <p>19.5 Summary 569</p> <p>Acknowledgment 569</p> <p>Appendix A Physical Origin of the Barrier Potential 569</p> <p>References 571</p> <p><b>20 Integration Technology and Cell Design 573</b><br /><i>Fred Chen, Jun Y. Seok, and Cheol S. Hwang</i></p> <p>20.1 Materials 573</p> <p>20.1.1 Resistance Switching (RS) Materials 573</p> <p>20.1.1.1 Insulating Oxides 573</p> <p>20.1.1.2 Semiconducting Oxides 574</p> <p>20.1.1.3 Electrolyte Chalcogenides 574</p> <p>20.1.1.4 Phase-Change Materials 575</p> <p>20.1.2 Electrode Materials, Including Reductants 575</p> <p>20.2 Structures 576</p> <p>20.2.1 Planar Stack 576</p> <p>20.2.2 Sidewall-Conforming Stack 577</p> <p>20.2.3 Lateral Structure 578</p> <p>20.3 Integration Architectures 579</p> <p>20.3.1 Transistor in Series with RRAM (1T1R) 579</p> <p>20.3.2 Transistor in Parallel with RRAM (T||R) 582</p> <p>20.3.3 1S1R Stacked Crosspoint 583</p> <p>20.3.3.1 The Selector Device 583</p> <p>20.3.3.2 Sensing Margin 584</p> <p>20.3.3.3 Write Margin 586</p> <p>20.3.3.4 Cumulative Line Resistance 586</p> <p>20.3.4 Through-Multilayer via Array 588</p> <p>20.3.4.1 Through-Multilayer Vias 588</p> <p>20.3.4.2 Staircase Connections 589</p> <p>20.3.4.3 Horizontal Electrodes 589</p> <p>20.3.4.4 Bathtub-Type Peripheral Connection 592</p> <p>20.3.5 Array Area Efficiency 592</p> <p>20.4 Conclusions 593</p> <p>Acknowledgment 594</p> <p>References 594</p> <p><b>21 Reliability Aspects 597</b><br /><i>Dirk J.Wouters, Yang-Yin Chen, Andrea Fantini, and Nagarajan Raghavan</i></p> <p>21.1 Introduction 597</p> <p>21.2 Endurance (Cyclability) 598</p> <p>21.2.1 Endurance Summary of Bipolar Switching TMO RRAM 598</p> <p>21.2.2 Balancing the Bipolar Switching for Better Endurance 599</p> <p>21.2.3 Understanding of Endurance Degradation 600</p> <p>21.3 Retention 601</p> <p>21.3.1 Retention Summary of Bipolar TMO RRAM 601</p> <p>21.3.2 Understanding of Retention Degradation in Bipolar TMO RRAM 603</p> <p>21.3.3 Trade-Off between Retention/Endurance 604</p> <p>21.4 Variability 605</p> <p>21.4.1 Introduction 605</p> <p>21.4.2 Experimental Aspects of Variability 605</p> <p>21.4.2.1 Variability of Forming Operation 605</p> <p>21.4.2.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Variability 606</p> <p>21.4.3 Physical Aspects of Variability 607</p> <p>21.4.3.1 Variability in Unipolar Devices 607</p> <p>21.4.3.2 Variability in Bipolar Devices 607</p> <p>21.5 Random Telegraph Noise (RTN) 609</p> <p>21.5.1 Introduction 609</p> <p>21.5.2 Charge Carrier Transport-Induced RTN 610</p> <p>21.5.3 Oxygen Vacancy Transport-Induced RTN 611</p> <p>21.5.3.1 Experimental Identification of Vacancy Perturbations 611</p> <p>21.5.3.2 Vacancy-Induced RTN for Shallow to Moderate Reset 612</p> <p>21.5.3.3 Vacancy-Induced RTN for Very Deep Reset 613</p> <p>21.5.3.4 Bimodal Filament Configuration and Disturb Immunity 614</p> <p>21.5.3.5 Role of Dielectric Microstructure on RTN Immunity 614</p> <p>21.5.4 Summary of RTN Analysis Studies 615</p> <p>21.6 Disturb 615</p> <p>21.6.1 Phenomena 615</p> <p>21.6.2 Understanding and Modeling 616</p> <p>21.6.3 Anomalous Disturb Behavior 616</p> <p>21.7 Conclusions and Outlook 617</p> <p>Acknowledgment 618</p> <p>References 618</p> <p><b>22 Select Device Concepts for Crossbar Arrays 623</b><br /><i>Geoffrey W. Burr, Rohit S. Shenoy, and Hyunsang Hwang</i></p> <p>22.1 Introduction 623</p> <p>22.2 Crossbar Array Considerations 624</p> <p>22.2.1 Problems Associated with Large Subarrays 625</p> <p>22.2.2 Considerations During NVM-Write 625</p> <p>22.2.3 Considerations During NVM-Read 627</p> <p>22.3 Target Specifications for Select Devices 627</p> <p>22.4 Types of Select Devices 629</p> <p>22.4.1 Si Based 629</p> <p>22.4.2 Oxide Diodes 631</p> <p>22.4.2.1 Oxide PN Junction 631</p> <p>22.4.2.2 Metal-Oxide Schottky Barrier 632</p> <p>22.4.3 Threshold Switch 633</p> <p>22.4.3.1 Ovonic Threshold Switching 634</p> <p>22.4.3.2 Metal–Insulator Transition (MIT) 636</p> <p>22.4.3.3 Threshold Vacuum Switch 637</p> <p>22.4.4 Oxide Tunnel Barrier 638</p> <p>22.4.4.1 Single Layer Oxide-(Nitride-)Based Select Device (TiO2 and SiNx) 638</p> <p>22.4.4.2 Multi-Layer Oxide-Based Select Device (TaOx/TiO2/TaOx) 638</p> <p>22.4.5 Mixed-Ionic-Electronic-Conduction (MIEC) 639</p> <p>22.5 Self-Selected Resistive Memory 643</p> <p>22.5.1 Complementary Resistive Switch 645</p> <p>22.5.2 Hybrid ReRAM-Select Devices 647</p> <p>22.5.3 Nonlinear ReRAM 649</p> <p>22.6 Conclusion 651<br /><br />References 652</p> <p><b>23 Bottom-Up Approaches for Resistive Switching Memories 661</b><br /><i>Sabina Spiga, Takeshi Yanagida, and Tomoji Kawai</i></p> <p>23.1 Introduction 661</p> <p>23.2 Bottom-Up ReRAM Fabrication Methods 662</p> <p>23.2.1 Vapor–Liquid–Solid Method 662</p> <p>23.2.2 Template-Assisted Fabrication Methods of NWs 663</p> <p>23.3 Resistive Switching in Single (All-Oxide) NW/Nanoisland ReRAM 664</p> <p>23.3.1 Resistive Switching in Single NiO NWs and Nanoislands 665</p> <p>23.3.2 Resistive Switching in Oxide NWs Alternative to NiO 669</p> <p>23.3.3 Study of Switching Mechanisms in Oxide NWReRAM 671</p> <p>23.3.4 Resistive Switching in NWReRAM with Active Electrodes: ECM Mechanisms 675</p> <p>23.4 Resistive Switching in Axial Heterostructured NWs 678</p> <p>23.5 Core–Shell NWs toward Crossbar Architectures 680</p> <p>23.5.1 Crossbar Devices with Si(core)/a-Si(shell) NWs and Ag Electrodes 681</p> <p>23.5.2 Crossbar Devices with Ni(core)/NiO(shell) NWs and Ni Electrodes 683</p> <p>23.6 Emerging Bottom-Up Approaches and Applications 686</p> <p>23.6.1 1D1R Nanopillar Array 686</p> <p>23.6.2 Block-Copolymer Self-Assembly for Advanced ReRAM 687</p> <p>23.7 Conclusions 688</p> <p>References 689</p> <p><b>24 Switch Application in FPGA 695</b><br /><i>Toshitsugu Sakamoto, S. SimonWong, and Young Yang Liauw</i></p> <p>24.1 Introduction 695</p> <p>24.2 Monolithically 3D FPGA with BEOL Devices 696</p> <p>24.3 Resistive Memory Replacing Configuration Memory 698</p> <p>24.3.1 Architecture 698</p> <p>24.4 Resistive Configuration Memory Cell 699</p> <p>24.5 Resistive Configuration Memory Array 700</p> <p>24.5.1 Prototype 702</p> <p>24.5.2 Measurement Results 703</p> <p>24.6 Complementary Atomic Switch Replacing Configuration Switch 706</p> <p>24.6.1 Complementary Atomic Switch (CAS) 706</p> <p>24.6.2 Cell Architecture with CAS 707</p> <p>24.6.3 Demonstration of CAS-Based Programmable Logic 709</p> <p>24.7 Energy Efficiency of Programmable Logic Accelerator 710</p> <p>24.8 Conclusion and Outlook 712</p> <p>References 712</p> <p><b>25 ReRAM-Based Neuromorphic Computing 715</b><br /><i>Giacomo Indiveri, Eike Linn, and Stefano Ambrogio</i></p> <p>25.1 Neuromorphic Systems: Past and Present Approaches 715</p> <p>25.2 Neuromorphic Engineering 715</p> <p>25.3 Neuromorphic Computing (The Present) 716</p> <p>25.4 Neuromorphic ReRAM Approaches (The Future) 718</p> <p>25.4.1 ReRAM-Based Neuromorphic Approaches 718</p> <p>25.4.2 Nonvolatility and Volatility of Resistive States 721</p> <p>25.4.3 Nonlinear Switching Kinetics 722</p> <p>25.4.4 Multilevel Resistance Behavior 722</p> <p>25.4.5 Capacitive Properties 725</p> <p>25.4.6 Switching Statistics 725</p> <p>25.5 Scaling in Neuromorphic ReRAM Architectures 728</p> <p>25.6 Applications of Neuromorphic ReRAM Architectures 729</p> <p>References 731</p> <p>Index 737</p>
Daniele Ielmini is associate professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Science and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy. He obtained his Ph.D. in Nuclear Engineering from Politecnico di Milano in 2000. He held visiting positions at Intel and Stanford University in 2006. His research group investigates emerging device technologies, such as phase change memory (PCM) and resistive switching memory (ReRAM) for both memory and computing applications. He has authored six book chapters, more than 200 papers published in international journals and presented at international conferences, and four patents to his name. Professor Ielmini received the Intel Outstanding Research Award in 2013 and the ERC Consolidator Grant in 2014.<br> <br> Rainer Waser is professor at the faculty for Electrical Engineering and Information Technology at the RWTH Aachen University and director at the Peter Grunberg Institute at the Forschungszentrum Julich (FZJ), Germany. His research group is focused on fundamental aspects of electronic materials and on such integrated devices as nonvolatile memories, logic devices, sensors and actuators.<br> Professor Waser has published about 500 technical papers. Since 2003, he has been the coordinator of the research program on nanoelectronic systems within the Germany national research centres in the Helmholtz Association. In 2007, he has been co-founder of the Julich-Aachen Research Alliance, section Fundamentals of Future Information Technology (JARA-FIT). In 2014, he was awarded the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Tsungming Tu Award of the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan.

Diese Produkte könnten Sie auch interessieren:

Hot-Melt Extrusion
Hot-Melt Extrusion
von: Dennis Douroumis
PDF ebook
136,99 €
Hot-Melt Extrusion
Hot-Melt Extrusion
von: Dennis Douroumis
EPUB ebook
136,99 €
Kunststoffe
Kunststoffe
von: Wilhelm Keim
PDF ebook
99,99 €