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Biodiesel Production

Feedstocks, Catalysts, and Technologies
1. Aufl.

von: Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum, Gopinath Halder, Suttichai Assabumrungrat, Kanokwan Ngaosuwan
142,99 €
Verlag:	Wiley
Format:	PDF
Veröffentl.:	05.05.2022
ISBN/EAN:	9781119771340
Sprache:	englisch
Anzahl Seiten:	432

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Titelbeschreibung

An incisive discussion of biofuel production from an economically informed technical perspective that addresses sustainability and commercialization together In Biodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts and Technologies, renowned chemists Drs Rokhum, Halder, Ngaosuwan and Assabumrungrat present an up-to-date account of the most recent developments, challenges, and trends in biodiesel production. The book addresses select feedstocks, including edible and non-edible oils, waste cooking oil, microalgae, and animal fats, and highlights their advantages and disadvantages from a variety of perspectives. It also discusses several catalysts used in each of their methods of preparation, as well as their synthesis, reactivity, recycling techniques, and stability. The contributions explore recently developed technologies for sustainable production of biodiesel and provides robust treatments of their sustainability, commercialization, and their prospects for future biodiesel production. <ul> <li>A thorough introduction to the various catalysts used in the preparation of biodiesel and their characteristics</li> <li>Comprehensive explorations of biofuel production from technical and economic perspectives, with complete treatments of their sustainability and commercialization</li> <li>Practical discussions of the development of new strategies for sustainable and economically viable biodiesel production</li> <li>In-depth examinations of biodiesel feedstocks, catalysts, and technologies</li></ul>Perfect for academic researchers and industrial scientists working in fields that involve biofuels, bioenergy, catalysis, and materials science, Biodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts and Technologies will also earn a place in the libraries of bioenergy regulators.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Preface xv List of Contributors xvii An Overview of Biodiesel Production xxi Part 1 Biodiesel Feedstocks 1 1 Advances in Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 3 Umer Rashid and Balkis Hazmi 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 History of the Use of Vegetable Oil in Biodiesel 6 1.3 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 6 1.3.1 Generations of Biodiesel 7 1.3.2 First-Generation Biodiesel 7 1.3.3 Second-Generation Biodiesel 8 1.3.4 Third-Generation Biodiesel 8 1.4 Basics of the Transesterification Reaction 8 1.5 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction 10 1.6 Alkaline-Catalyzed Transesterification 10 1.7 Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification 15 1.8 Enzymatic-Catalyzed Transesterification 16 1.9 Fuel Properties and Quality Specifications for Biodiesel 19 1.10 Conclusion 20 References 21 2 Green Technologies in Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil to Biodiesel 33 Bisheswar Karmakar and Gopinath Halder 2.1 Introduction 33 2.1.1 The Necessity for Biodiesel 33 2.1.2 Sourcing the Correct Precursor 33 2.2 Importance of Valorization 35 2.3 Purification and Characterization 35 2.4 Transesterification: A Comprehensive Look 36 2.5 Conversion Techniques 37 2.5.1 Traditional Conversion Approaches 38 2.5.1.1 Acid Catalysis 38 2.5.1.2 Alkali Catalysis 38 2.5.1.3 Enzyme Catalysis 40 2.5.1.4 Other Novel Heterogeneous Catalysts 40 2.5.1.5 Two-Step Catalyzed Process 41 2.5.2 Modern Conversion Approaches 41 2.5.2.1 Supercritical Fluids 41 2.5.2.2 Microwave Irradiation 43 2.5.2.3 Ultrasonication 43 2.6 Economics and Environmental Impact 44 2.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 45 References 45 3 Non-edible Oils for Biodiesel Production: State of the Art and Future Perspectives 49 Valeria D’Ambrosio, Enrico Scelsi, and Carlo Pastore 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Vegetable Non-edible Oils 50 3.2.1 General Cultivation Data 50 3.2.2 Composition and Chemical–Physical Properties of Biodiesel Obtained from Non-edible Vegetable Oils 50 3.2.3 Biodiesel Production from Non-edible Vegetable Oil 54 3.2.3.1 Extraction Methods 54 3.2.3.2 Biodiesel Production 57 3.2.4 Criticisms Related to Non-edible Oils 57 3.3 Future Perspectives of Non-edible Oils: Oils from Waste 58 3.4 Conclusion 60 Acknowledgments 61 References 61 4 Algal Oil as a Low-Cost Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 67 Michael Van Lal Chhandama, Kumudini Belur Satyan, and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum 4.1 Introduction 67 4.1.1 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production 68 4.2 Lipid and Biosynthesis of Lipid in Microalgae 70 4.2.1 Lipid Biosynthesis 71 4.2.2 Lipid Extraction 72 4.3 Optimization of Lipid Production in Microalgae 73 4.3.1 Nitrogen Stress 73 4.3.2 Phosphorous Stress 73 4.3.3 pH Stress 74 4.3.4 Temperature Stress 74 4.3.5 Light 75 4.4 Conclusion 75 References 76 Part 2 Different Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production 83 5 Homogeneous Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production 85 Bidangshri Basumatary, Biswajit Nath, and Sanjay Basumatary 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Transesterification in Biodiesel Synthesis 86 5.3 Homogeneous Catalyst in Biodiesel Synthesis 88 5.3.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst 88 5.3.2 Homogeneous Base Catalyst 90 5.4 Properties of Biodiesel Produced by Homogeneous Acid and Base-Catalyzed Reactions 93 5.5 Relevance of Homogeneous Acid and Base Catalysts in Biodiesel Synthesis 96 5.6 Conclusion 96 References 97 6 Application of Metal Oxides Catalyst in Production of Biodiesel 103 Hui li 6.1 Basic Metal Oxide 103 6.1.1 Monobasic Metal Oxide 103 6.1.1.1 Alkaline Earth Metal Oxide 103 6.1.1.2 Transition Metal Oxide 105 6.1.2 Multibasic Metal Oxide 105 6.1.2.1 Supported on Metal Oxide 106 6.1.2.2 Supported on Activated Carbon 106 6.1.2.3 Supported on Metal Organic Framework 107 6.1.3 Active Site-Doped Basic Metal Oxide 107 6.1.3.1 Alkali Metal Doped 107 6.1.3.2 Active Metal Oxide Doped 107 6.1.4 Mechanism of Transesterification Catalyzed by Basic Metal Oxide 108 6.2 Acid Metal Oxide 108 6.2.1 Monoacid Metal Oxide 109 6.2.2 Multiacid Metal Oxide 109 6.2.3 Supported on Metal Organic Framework 112 6.2.4 Mechanism of Transesterification/Esterification Catalyzed by Acid Metal Oxide 112 6.3 Deactivation of Metal Oxide 113 References 114 7 Supported Metal/Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 119 Pratibha Agrawal and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum 7.1 Introduction 119 7.2 Supported Catalyst 120 7.3 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Alumina 120 7.4 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Zeolite 123 7.5 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on ZnO 125 7.6 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Silica 127 7.7 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Biochar 128 7.7.1 Solid Acid Catalysts 129 7.7.2 Solid Alkali Catalysts 129 7.8 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Metal Organic Frameworks 131 7.9 Metal/Metal Oxide Supported on Magnetic Nanoparticles 134 7.10 Summary 135 References 136 8 Mixed Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 143 Brandon Lowe, Jabbar Gardy, Kejun Wu, and Ali Hassanpour 8.1 Introduction 143 8.2 Previous Research 144 8.3 State of the Art 150 8.3.1 Solid Acid MMO Catalysts 150 8.3.2 Solid Base MMO Catalysts 150 8.3.3 Solid Bifunctional MMO Catalysts 156 8.4 Discussion 157 8.5 Conclusion 161 8.6 Symbols and Nomenclature 162 References 162 9 Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production 167 Avinash P. Ingle, Rahul Bhagat, Mangesh P. Moharil, Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum, Shreshtha Saxena, and S. R. Kalbande 9.1 Introduction 167 9.2 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils 169 9.3 Conventional Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production: Advantages and Limitations 171 9.3.1 Homogeneous Catalysts 171 9.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts 172 9.3.3 Biocatalysts 173 9.4 Role of Nanotechnology in Biodiesel Production 173 9.5 Different Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production 173 9.5.1 Metal-Based Nanocatalysts 174 9.5.2 Carbon-Based Nanocatalysts 175 9.5.3 Zeolites/Nanozeolites 180 9.5.4 Magnetic Nanocatalysts 182 9.5.5 Nanoclays 184 9.5.6 Other Nanocatalysts 184 9.6 Conclusion 185 Acknowledgment 185 References 185 10 Sustainable Production of Biodiesel Using Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 193 Naomi Shibasaki-Kitakawa and Kousuke Hiromori 10.1 Introduction 193 10.2 Features of Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 194 10.3 Cation-Exchange Resin Catalyst 194 10.3.1 Notes of Caution When Comparing the Activity of Resins with Different Properties 194 10.3.2 Reversible Reduction of Resin Catalytic Activity by Water 196 10.3.3 Search for Operating Conditions for Maximum Productivity Rather than Maximum Catalytic Activity 198 10.3.4 Challenges Regarding One-Step Reaction with Simultaneous Esterification and Transesterification Catalyzed by Cation-Exchange Resin 198 10.4 Anion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 199 10.4.1 Requirements for High Catalytic Activity in the Transesterification of Triglycerides 199 10.4.2 Analysis of Previous Studies 201 10.4.3 Decreased Catalytic Activity and Regeneration Method 203 10.4.4 Additional Functions Unique to Anion-Exchange Resins 204 10.5 Summary 204 References 205 11 Advances in Bifunctional Solid Catalysts for Biodiesel Production 209 Bishwajit Changmai, Michael Van Lal Chhandama, Chhangte Vanlalveni, Andrew E.H. Wheatley, and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum 11.1 Introduction 209 11.2 Application of Solid Bifunctional Catalyst in Biodiesel Production 210 11.2.1 Acid–Base Bifunctional Catalysts 210 11.2.1.1 Oxides of Acid–Base 211 11.2.1.2 Acid–Base Hydrides 213 11.2.2 Bifunctional Acid Catalyst 217 11.2.2.1 Bifunctional Brønsted–Lewis Acid Oxides 217 11.2.2.2 Heteropolyacid-Based Bifunctional Catalyst 220 11.2.3 Biowaste-Derived Bifunctional Catalyst 222 11.3 Summary and Concluding Remarks 224 Acknowledgment 225 References 225 12 Application of Catalysts Derived from Renewable Resources in Production of Biodiesel 229 Kanokwan Ngaosuwan, Apiluck Eiad-ua, Atthapon Srifa, Worapon Kiatkittipong, Weerinda Appamana, Doonyapong Wongsawaeng, Armando T. Quitain, and Suttichai Assabumrungrat 12.1 Introduction 229 12.2 Potential Renewable Resources for Production of Biodiesel Catalysts 230 12.2.1 Animal Resources 230 12.2.1.1 Eggshells (Chicken and Ostrich) 231 12.2.1.2 Seashells (Snail, Mussel, Oyster, and Capiz) 231 12.2.1.3 Bones 233 12.2.2 Plant Resources 233 12.2.2.1 Carbon-Supported Catalysts 233 12.2.2.2 Silica-Supported Catalysts 236 12.2.2.3 Other Potential Elements from Plant Residues 236 12.2.3 Natural Resources 236 12.2.3.1 Dolomitic Rock (Calcined Dolomite and Modified Dolomite) 236 12.2.3.2 Lime 237 12.2.3.3 Natural Clays 237 12.2.3.4 Zeolites 238 12.2.4 Industrial Waste Resources 240 12.2.4.1 Food Industry Wastes 240 12.2.4.2 Mining Industry Wastes 240 12.3 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Challenges of These Types of Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 242 Acknowledgment 243 References 243 13 Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid-Based Catalysts 249 B. Sangeetha and G. Baskar 13.1 Introduction 249 13.2 Mechanism of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production 250 13.3 Acidic and Basic Ionic Liquids (AILs/BILs) as Catalyst in Biodiesel Production 250 13.4 Supported Ionic Liquids in Biodiesel Production 251 13.5 IL Lipase Cocatalysts 255 13.6 Optimization and Novel Biodiesel Production Technologies Using ILs 257 13.7 Recyclability of the Ionic Liquids on Biodiesel Production 259 13.7.1 Recovery of ILs 259 13.7.2 Reuse of Ionic Liquids 260 13.8 Kinetics of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production 260 13.9 Techno-Economic Analysis and Environmental Impact Analysisof Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid as Catalyst 261 13.10 Conclusion 262 References 263 14 Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) as Versatile Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis 269 Vasudeva Rao Bakuru, Marilyn Esclance DMello, and Suresh Babu Kalidindi 14.1 Introduction 269 14.1.1 Metal-Containing Secondary Building Units 271 14.1.2 Organic Linker 272 14.1.3 Pore Volume 272 14.2 Biodiesel Synthesis Over MOF Catalysts 273 14.2.1 Transesterification Reaction 274 14.2.1.1 Transesterification at SBUs of MOFs 274 14.2.1.2 Transesterification at Linker Active Sites 276 14.2.2 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids 277 14.2.2.1 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids at SBUs of MOFs 277 14.2.2.2 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids at Linker Active Sites 279 14.2.2.3 Esterification at Pore Volume (Guest Incorporation) 280 14.3 Conclusion 281 References 281 Part 3 Technologies, By-product Valorization and Prospects of Biodiesel Production 285 15 Upstream Strategies (Waste Oil Feedstocks, Nonedible Oils, and Unicellular Oil Feedstocks like Microalgae) 287 Aleksandra Sander and Ana Petračić 15.1 Introduction 287 15.1.1 Classification of Biodiesel 287 15.1.2 Commercial Production of Biodiesel 288 15.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks 290 15.2.1 Edible Oils as Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 291 15.2.2 Nonedible Oils as Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 292 15.2.3 Waste Feedstocks (Waste Cooking Oils, Waste Animal Fats, Waste Coffee Ground Oil, Olive Pomace) 292 15.2.4 Unicellular Oil Feedstocks (Microalgae, Yeasts, Cyanobacteria) 293 15.3 Composition of Oils and Fats 293 15.4 Methods for Oil Extraction 294 15.4.1 Mechanical Extraction 294 15.4.2 Solvent Extraction 295 15.4.3 Enzymatic Extraction 296 15.5 Purification of Oils and Fats 297 15.5.1 Deacidification 297 15.5.2 Winterization 298 15.5.3 Demetallization 298 15.5.4 Degumming 298 15.6 Production of Biodiesel 299 15.6.1 Catalysts for Biodiesel Production 300 15.6.2 Homogeneous Catalysts 300 15.6.3 Heterogeneous Catalysts 301 15.7 Future Prospects 302 References 302 16 Mainstream Strategies for Biodiesel Production 311 Narita Chanthon, Nattawat Petchsoongsakul, Kanokwan Ngaosuwan, Worapon Kiatkittipong, Doonyapong Wongsawaeng, Weerinda Appamana, and Suttichai Assabumrungrat 16.1 Introduction 311 16.2 Mainstream Strategies and Technology for Biodiesel Production 312 16.2.1 Current Mainstream Operation 312 16.2.1.1 Batch Mode 312 16.2.1.2 Continuous Mode 312 16.2.2 Process Mainstream for Biodiesel Production Based on the Reactor Types 313 16.2.2.1 Rotating Reactor 313 16.2.2.2 Tubular Flow Reactor 315 16.2.2.3 Cavitational Reactor 317 16.2.2.4 Microwave Reactor 318 16.2.2.5 Multifunctional Reactor (Reactive Distillation, Membrane, Centrifugal Reactors) 319 16.2.2.6 Other Process Intensification 322 16.3 Future Prospects and Challenges 323 Acknowledgment 327 References 327 17 Downstream Strategies for Separation, Washing, Purification, and Alcohol Recovery in Biodiesel Production 331 Ramón Piloto-Rodríguez and Yosvany Díaz-Domínguez 17.1 Introduction 331 17.1.1 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Yield 332 17.1.2 Transesterification Reaction Conditions 332 17.1.3 Separation After FAME Conversion 332 17.1.4 Washing 334 17.2 Glycerol Separation and Refining 336 17.3 Membrane Reactors 337 17.4 Methanol Recovery 339 17.5 Additization 339 17.6 Conclusion 342 References 343 18 Heterogeneous Catalytic Routes for Bio-glycerol-Based Acrylic Acid Synthesis 345 Nittan Singh, Pavan Narayan Kalbande, and Putla Sudarsanam 18.1 Introduction 345 18.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Propylene 346 18.3 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol 346 18.3.1 Glycerol Dehydration to Acrolein 347 18.3.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol 349 18.4 Conclusion 351 Acknowledgments 353 References 353 19 Sustainability, Commercialization, and Future Prospects of Biodiesel Production 355 Pothiappan Vairaprakash, and Arumugam Arumugam 19.1 Introduction 355 19.2 Biodiesel as a Promising Renewable Energy Carrier 356 19.3 Overview of the Biodiesel Production Process 358 19.4 Evolution in the Feedstocks Used for the Sustainable Production of Biodiesel 359 19.5 First-Generation Biodiesel and the Challenges in Its Sustainability 359 19.6 Development of Second-Generation Biodiesel to Address the Sustainability 361 19.7 Algae-Based Biodiesel 362 19.8 Waste Oils, Grease, and Animal Fats in Biodiesel Production 363 19.9 Technical Impact by the Biodiesel Usage 363 19.10 Socioeconomic Impacts 364 19.11 Toxicological Impact 364 19.12 Sustainability Challenges in the Biodiesel Production and Use 365 19.13 Concluding Remarks 366 References 366 20 Advanced Practices in Biodiesel Production 377 Trinath Biswal, Krushna Prasad Shadangi, and Rupam Kataki 20.1 Introduction 377 20.2 Mechanism of Transesterification 378 20.3 Advanced Biodiesel Production Technologies 379 20.3.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Membrane Reactor 379 20.3.1.1 Principle 379 20.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Transesterification Technology 381 20.3.2.1 Principle 381 20.3.3 Ultrasonic-Assisted Transesterification Techniques 382 20.3.4 Production of Biodiesel Using Cosolvent Method 385 20.3.4.1 Principle 385 20.3.5 In Situ Biodiesel Production Technology 385 20.3.5.1 Principle 385 20.3.6 Production of Biodiesel Through Reactive Distillation Process 387 20.3.6.1 Principle 387 20.4 Conclusion 389 20.5 Future Perspectives 390 References 390 Index 397

Autorenportrait

Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Fellow in the laboratory of Prof. Andrew EH Wheatley in the Department of Chemistry, Cambridge University, UK and Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology in Silchar, India. His research interest includes organic chemistry, material chemistry, renewable energy, and heterogeneous catalysis. He is actively engaged in numerous scientific societies and currently served as an Academic Editor of Journal of Chemistry (Hindawi) and a guest editor in several journals. Gopinath Halder, Ph.D., is Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Durgapur, India. As a chemical engineer, Prof. Halder has more than two decades of teaching and research experience in biofuel synthesis from non-edible and microalgal feedstock, preparation of heterogeneous carbonaceous catalyst, process optimization and bioremediation of contaminated waste water containing heavy metals, fluoride ions and pharmaceutical active compounds. Suttichai Assabumrungrat is Full Professor in Chemical Engineering, and the Director of Bio-Circular-Green economy Technology and Engineering Center (BCGeTEC), Faculty of Engineering at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. His research interest includes applications of multifunctional reactors and process intensification for chemical, petrochemical and biorefinery industries. Particular focuses are on technologies related to production of biofuels, bio-based chemicals and hydrogen as well as CO2 capture and utilization. Kanokwan Ngaosuwan is Associate Professor in Chemical Engineering at the Division of Chemical Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Krungthep, Bangkok, Thailand. She earned her Ph.D. degree in chemical engineering from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Her research interests include biomass conversion, heterogenous catalysis and catalytic reaction engineering, and process intensification.

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An incisive discussion of biofuel production from an economically informed technical perspective that addresses sustainability and commercialization together InBiodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts, and Technologies, renowned chemists Drs. Rokhum, Halder, Ngaosuwan, and Assabumrungrat present an up-to-date account of the most recent developments, challenges, and trends in biodiesel production. The book addresses select feedstocks, including edible and non-edible oils, waste cooking oil, microalgae, and animal fats, and highlights their advantages and disadvantages from a variety of perspectives. It also discusses several catalysts used in each of their methods of preparation, as well as their synthesis, reactivity, recycling techniques, and stability. The contributions explore recently developed technologies for sustainable production of biodiesel and provides robust treatments of their sustainability, commercialization, and their prospects for future biodiesel production. <ul><li>A thorough introduction to the various catalysts used in the preparation of biodiesel and their characteristics</li> <li>Comprehensive explorations of biofuel production from technical and economic perspectives, with complete treatments of their sustainability and commercialization</li> <li>Practical discussions of the development of new strategies for sustainable and economically viable biodiesel production</li> <li>In-depth examinations of biodiesel feedstocks, catalysts, and technologies</li></ul> Perfect for academic researchers and industrial scientists working in fields that involve biofuels, bioenergy, catalysis, and materials science, Biodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts, and Technologies will also earn a place in the libraries of bioenergy regulators.