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<p><b> </b>Preface ix</p> <p>Acknowledgments xi</p> <p><b>1 Fundamental Concepts of Electrical Safety Engineering </b><b>1</b></p> <p>1.1 Introduction 1</p> <p>1.2 Electric Shock 2</p> <p>1.2.1 Ventricular Fibrillation 3</p> <p>1.2.2 The Heart-current Factor 5</p> <p>1.3 The Electrical Impedance of the Human Body 6</p> <p>1.3.1 The Internal Resistance of the Human Body 7</p> <p>1.4 Thermal Shock 10</p> <p>1.5 Heated Surfaces of Electrical Equipment and Contact Burn Injuries 12</p> <p>1.6 Ground-Potential and Ground-Resistance 14</p> <p>1.6.1 Area of Influence of a Ground-electrode 18</p> <p>1.7 Hemispherical Electrodes in Parallel 18</p> <p>1.8 Hemispherical Electrodes in Series 19</p> <p>1.9 Person’s Body Resistance-to-ground and Touch Voltages 20</p> <p>1.10 Identification of <i>Extraneous-Conductive-Parts </i>24</p> <p>1.11 Measuring Touch Voltages 26</p> <p><b>2 Safety-by-Design Approach in AC/DC Systems </b><b>31</b></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 31</p> <p>2.2 Class I PV Equipment 33</p> <p>2.3 Class II PV Equipment 35</p> <p>2.4 Ground Faults and Ground Fault Protection 35</p> <p>2.5 Functionally Grounded PV Systems 37</p> <p>2.6 Non-Ground-Referenced PV Systems 40</p> <p>2.7 Ground-Referenced PV Systems 42</p> <p>2.8 Fire Hazard in Ground-Referenced PV Systems 44</p> <p>2.9 Faults at Loads Downstream the PV Inverter in Ground-Referenced PV Systems 47</p> <p>2.10 Non-Electrically Separated PV System 48</p> <p>2.11 PV Systems Wiring Methods and Safety 50</p> <p>2.12 d.c. Currents and Safety 52</p> <p>2.13 Electrical Safety of PV Systems 55</p> <p>2.14 Rapid-Shutdown of PV Arrays on Buildings 57</p> <p>2.15 Hazard and Risk 58</p> <p><b>3 Grounding and Bonding </b><b>63</b></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 63</p> <p>3.2 Basic Concepts of Grounding Systems: The Ground Rod 67</p> <p>3.3 The Maxwell Method 77</p> <p>3.4 Multiple Rods: Mutual Resistance 83</p> <p>3.5 Ground Rings and Ground Grid 87</p> <p>3.6 Complex Arrangements: Rings and Ground Grids Combined with Rods and Horizontal Electrodes 100</p> <p><b>4 Lightning Protection Systems </b><b>107</b></p> <p>4.1 Review of Natural Lightning Physics, Modeling and Protection 108</p> <p>4.2 Lightning Protection of PV Systems 121</p> <p>4.2.1 Ground-Mounted PV Systems 124</p> <p>4.2.2 Rooftop Mounted PV Systems 126</p> <p>4.2.3 Protection against Overvoltage 128</p> <p>4.2.4 Surge Protective Devices (SPDs) 130</p> <p>4.3 Lighting Protection of Wind Turbines 136</p> <p>4.3.1 Lightning Protection System (LPS) 139</p> <p>4.3.2 Step and Touch Voltages 143</p> <p>4.3.3 Lightning Exposure Assessment 144</p> <p>4.3.4 Assessment of the Average Annual Number of Dangerous Events NL Due to Flashes Directly to and near Service Cables 147</p> <p>4.3.5 Lightning Protection Zones 149</p> <p>4.4 High-Frequency Grounding Systems 151</p> <p>4.4.1 Arrangement of Ground Electrodes 155</p> <p>4.4.2 <i>Effective Length </i>of a Ground Electrode 157</p> <p>4.4.3 Frequency-dependent Soil and Ionization 158</p> <p><b>5 Renewable Energy System Protection and Coordination </b><b>169</b></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 169</p> <p>5.2 Power Collection Systems 170</p> <p>5.3 Cable Connections 182</p> <p>5.4 Offshore Wind Farm 188</p> <p>5.5 Distributed Energy Resources: Battery Energy Storage Systems and Electric Vehicles 192</p> <p><b>6 Soil Resistivity Measurements and Ground Resistance </b><b>205</b></p> <p>6.1 Soil Resistivity Measurements 205</p> <p>6.2 Wenner Method 208</p> <p>6.3 Schlumberger Method 214</p> <p>6.4 Multi-layer Soils 214</p> <p>6.4.1 Ground Grid in Multi-layer Soil 217</p> <p>6.4.2 Ground Rod in Multi-layer Soil 219</p> <p>6.5 Fall-of-Potential Method for Ground Resistance Measurement 220</p> <p>6.6 Slope Method for Grounding Resistance Measurement 223</p> <p>6.7 Star-delta Method for Grounding Resistance Measurement 224</p> <p>6.8 Four Potential Method for Grounding Resistance Measurement 225</p> <p>6.9 Potentiometer Method for Grounding Resistance Measurement 226</p> <p><b>Appendix 1: Performance of Grounding Systems in Transient Conditions </b><b>231</b></p> <p>1 Grounding System Analysis 232</p> <p>2 Mathematical Model 233</p> <p>3 Computation of Impedances 235</p> <p>4 Green’s Function 237</p> <p>4.1 Static Formulation 237</p> <p>4.1.1 One-Layer Ground 242</p> <p>4.1.2 Two-Layer Ground 243</p> <p>4.2 Dynamic Formulation 245</p> <p>4.2.1 Equivalent Transmission Line Approach 249</p> <p>5 Numerical Integration Aspects 252</p> <p>5.1 Singular Term 252</p> <p>5.2 Sommerfeld Integrals 254</p> <p><b>Appendix 2: Cable Failures in Renewable Energy Systems </b><b>265</b></p> <p>1 Cable Failures in Renewable Energy Systems: Introduction 266</p> <p>2 Possible Solutions 267</p> <p>2.1 Optimal Solutions 268</p> <p>2.2 Termite Attacks Prevention 269</p> <p>3 Non-destructive Methods for Cable Testing and Fault-locating 269</p> <p>3.1 Insulation Resistance (IR) Test 271</p> <p>3.1.1 IR Measurement of the Cable Insulation (XLPE) 271</p> <p>3.1.2 IR Measurement of the Polyethylene (PE) Cable Jacket 272</p> <p>3.2 High-Potential Test 272</p> <p>3.3 LCR Test 273</p> <p>3.3.1 Insulation Resistance (IR) 273</p> <p>3.3.2 Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR) 273</p> <p>3.3.3 Polarization Index (PI) 274</p> <p>3.3.4 Quality Factor (Q) 274</p> <p>3.3.5 Dissipation Factor (DF) 274</p> <p>3.3.6 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) Test 275</p> <p>3.3.7 Arc Reflection (ARC) Test 276</p> <p>3.3.8 Bridge Methods 276</p> <p>3.4 Cable Fault Analysis 279</p> <p>3.4.1 Prelocation 279</p> <p>3.4.2 Pinpointing 280</p> <p>4 Sheath and Jacket Repairs 280</p> <p>5 Termite Baiting Stations and Monitoring 281</p> <p>6 Termite-proof Cables 283</p> <p>Index 285</p>

<p><b>RODOLFO ARANEO</b>, PhD, is an Associate Professor at the Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of Rome "La Sapienza".</p> <p><b>MASSIMO MITOLO</b>, PhD, is a Professor of Physics and Electrical Engineering at the School of Integrated Design, Engineering and Automation of the Irvine Valley College, Irvine California.</p>

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