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<p>Contributors xiii</p> <p>Preface xvii</p> <p><b>1 Introduction and Background 1</b></p> <p>1.1 Characterization of Chemical Contaminants 2</p> <p>1.2 Human Exposures and Dosimetry 7</p> <p>1.3 Chemical Exposures and Dose to Target Tissues 8</p> <p>1.4 Concentration of Toxic Chemicals in Human Microenvironments 9</p> <p>1.5 Inhalation Exposures and Respiratory Tract Effects 13</p> <p>1.6 Ingestion Exposures and Gastrointestinal Tract Effects 19</p> <p>1.7 Skin Exposure and Dermal Effects 20</p> <p>1.8 Absorption Through Membranes and Systemic Circulation 21</p> <p>1.9 Accumulation in Target Tissues and Dosimetric Models 22</p> <p>1.10 Indirect Measures of Past Exposures 23</p> <p>1.11 Characterization of Health 24</p> <p>1.12 Exposure–Response Relationships 26</p> <p>1.13 Study Options for Health Effects Studies 32</p> <p>References 37</p> <p><b>2 Perspectives on Individual and Community Risk 41</b></p> <p>2.1 Nature of Risk 42</p> <p>2.2 Identification and Quantification of Risks 46</p> <p>2.3 Risk Communication 51</p> <p>2.4 Risk Reduction 54</p> <p>References 58</p> <p><b>3 Reducing Risks: An Environmental Engineering Perspective 65</b></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 65</p> <p>3.2 Environmental Risk‐Based Decision Making 66</p> <p>3.3 Applications and Use 70</p> <p>3.4 Historic Background 78</p> <p>3.5 Integrated Assessments 82</p> <p>3.6 Summary 83</p> <p>References 83</p> <p><b>4 Clinical Perspective on Respiratory Toxicology 87</b></p> <p>4.1 Concepts of Exposure 88</p> <p>4.2 Tools for Studying Individuals 90</p> <p>4.3 Tools for Studying Populations 101</p> <p>4.4 Cardiovascular Responses 108</p> <p>4.5 Limitations of Clinical and Epidemiological Assessments of the Effects of Inhaled Agents 110</p> <p>4.6 Climate Change and Health 111</p> <p>4.7 Novel Exposures 111</p> <p>4.8 Advice and Counseling of Patients 112</p> <p>4.9 Summary 115</p> <p>References 116</p> <p><b>5 Industrial Perspectives: Translating the Knowledge Base into Corporate Policies, Programs, and Practices for Health Protection 127</b></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 127</p> <p>5.2 The Life Cycle of a Chemical: Many Points for Possible Intervention 128</p> <p>5.3 The Knowledge Base for the Identification of Hazard and Health Protection Control Strategies 129</p> <p>5.4 Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Health Programs : Implementing the Knowledge Base 131</p> <p>5.5 Product Stewardship 138</p> <p>5.6 Responsible Care 142</p> <p>5.7 Concluding Perspective 145</p> <p>Acknowledgment 145</p> <p>References 145</p> <p><b>6 Food Constituents and Contaminants 149</b></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 149</p> <p>6.2 Legal and Regulatory Framework in the United States 152</p> <p>6.3 Safety Criteria and Their Scientific Bases 155</p> <p>6.4 Nutrients 163</p> <p>6.5 Substances Intentionally Introduced into Food 164</p> <p>6.6 Food Contaminants of Industrial Origin 171</p> <p>6.7 Constituents and Contaminants of Natural Origin 179</p> <p>6.8 Compounds Produced During Food Storage and Preparation 189</p> <p>6.9 Dietary Supplements 191</p> <p>6.10 Food Safety Institutions Around the World 192</p> <p>6.11 Summary and Conclusion 193</p> <p>Acronyms 194</p> <p>References 195</p> <p><b>7 Acrolein and Unsaturated Aldehydes 205</b></p> <p>7.1 Background 205</p> <p>7.2 Cellular Exposure and Metabolism 212</p> <p>7.3 Single Exposure Health Effects 230</p> <p>7.4 Repeated Exposure Health Effects 235</p> <p>7.5 Conclusion 239</p> <p>References 240</p> <p><b>8 Chemical Weapons 261</b></p> <p>8.1 Overview 261</p> <p>8.2 Nerve Agents 262</p> <p>8.3 Respiratory Toxicants 265</p> <p>8.4 Vesicants 266</p> <p>8.5 Rodenticides 271</p> <p>8.6 Arsenicals 273</p> <p>8.7 Metabolic Poisons 274</p> <p>8.8 Summary 275</p> <p>Acknowledgments 275</p> <p>References 275</p> <p><b>9 Ambient Air Particulate Matter 285</b></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 285</p> <p>9.2 Background 286</p> <p>9.3 Sources and Pathways for Human Exposure 290</p> <p>9.4 Ambient Air PM Concentrations 291</p> <p>9.5 Population Exposures to Ambient Air PM 292</p> <p>9.6 Evidence for Adverse Human Health Effects Due to the Inhalation of Ambient Air PM 293</p> <p>9.7 Health Effects of Specific PM Components 301</p> <p>9.8 Chronic Exposures to PM_2.5 and Components on Annual Mortality 312</p> <p>9.9 Pediatric Responses to Long‐Term PM Exposures 321</p> <p>9.10 Other Morbidity Responses Affected by PM_2.5 Components 323</p> <p>9.11 Controlled Short‐Term Human Inhalation Exposure Studies 325</p> <p>9.12 Animal Inhalation Studies with Concentrated PM (Caps) 326</p> <p>9.13 Effects of PM Source Mixture Inhalation Exposures in Laboratory Animals 332</p> <p>9.14 NPACT Subchronic Caps Mouse Inhalation Studies 335</p> <p>9.15 Consistency, Coherence, and Implications to Public Health 337</p> <p>9.16 Most Influential PM_2.5 Components as Causal Factors 338</p> <p>9.17 Daily Morbidity Effects and Coherence with Excess Daily Mortality 339</p> <p>9.18 Effects of PM_2.5 Components in Toxicological Studies 342</p> <p>9.19 The Roles of PM_2.5 Components on Health‐Related Responses 343</p> <p>9.20 Coherence of NPACT Toxicological and Epidemiological Responses 344</p> <p>9.21 Coherence of NPACT Study of CVD Effects in People and in Mice 344</p> <p>9.22 Coherence: Annual Human Annual Mortality with Aortic Plaque Progression in Apoe^−/− Mice 345</p> <p>9.23 Traffic and So₄ = in the NPACT Studies 345</p> <p>9.24 Holistic Perspectives on the Role of PM_2.5 in CVD Effects 346</p> <p>9.25 Setting of NAAQS and/or Control Strategies for Ambient Air PM 348</p> <p>9.26 Research Needs 351</p> <p>9.27 Need for a More Comprehensive Air Quality Monitoring Program 351</p> <p>9.28 Conclusions 352</p> <p>References 353</p> <p><b>10 Arsenic 367</b></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 367</p> <p>10.2 Kinetics of as Uptake, Distribution, and Elimination 373</p> <p>10.3 Toxicity and Mechanisms of Toxicity 375</p> <p>10.4 Evidence of Human Diseases Caused by Arsenic 377</p> <p>10.5 Conclusions 380</p> <p>References 380</p> <p><b>11 Asbestos and Other Mineral and Vitreous Fibers 389</b></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 389</p> <p>11.2 Inhalation Exposures to Fibers 393</p> <p>11.3 Fiber Deposition in the Respiratory Tract 395</p> <p>11.4 Fiber Retention, Translocation, Disintegration, and Dissolution 397</p> <p>11.5 Fiber‐Related Diseases/Processes 403</p> <p>11.6 Biological Effects of Size‐Classified Fibers in Laboratory Animals and Humans 405</p> <p>11.7 Critical Fiber Parameters Affecting Disease Pathogenesis 407</p> <p>11.8 Exposure–Response Relationships for Asbestos‐Related Lung Disease: Human Experience 416</p> <p>11.9 Exposure–Response Relationships for SVF‐Related Disease: Human Experience 421</p> <p>11.10 Summary of Human Responses to Long‐Term Fiber Inhalation Exposures 424</p> <p>11.11 Summary of Pulmonary and Pleural Responses in Animals 426</p> <p>11.12 Overall Summary of <i>In</i> <i>Vivo</i> Biological Responses to Various Durable Fibers 430</p> <p>11.13 Risk Assessment Issues 430</p> <p>11.14 Risk Assessment Issues—SVFs 434</p> <p>11.15 Recapitulation and Synthesis: Factors Affecting Fiber Dosimetry and Toxicity 436</p> <p>11.16 Discussion 438</p> <p>11.17 Conclusions 439</p> <p>Acknowledgments 440</p> <p>Acronyms 440</p> <p>References 441</p> <p><b>12 Carbon Monoxide 455</b></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 455</p> <p>12.2 CO Exposure and Dosimetry 456</p> <p>12.3 Mechanisms of CO Toxicity 458</p> <p>12.4 Populations at Risk of Health Effects Due to CO Exposure 459</p> <p>12.5 Potential Risks for Pregnant Women, Fetuses, and Newborn Children 460</p> <p>12.6 Historical Regulatory Background 460</p> <p>12.7 Health Effects of CO 461</p> <p>12.8 Exposure and Relationship to COHb Concentrations 465</p> <p>12.9 Neurotoxicological and Behavioral Effects 470</p> <p>12.10 Fetal Developmental and Perinatal Effects 471</p> <p>12.11 CO as a Risk Factor in Cardiovascular Disease Development 472</p> <p>12.12 Summary and Conclusions 472</p> <p>References 474</p> <p><b>13 Chromium 487</b></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 487</p> <p>13.2 Exposure 488</p> <p>13.3 Chromium Uptake and Metabolism 492</p> <p>13.4 Toxicological Effects 494</p> <p>13.5 Mechanisms of Chromium Toxicity and Carcinogenicity 500</p> <p>References 503</p> <p><b>14 Diesel Exhaust and Lung Cancer Risk 515</b></p> <p>14.1 Historical Overview 515</p> <p>14.2 Composition of Diesel Engine Exhaust 517</p> <p>14.3 Environmental Exposures to Diesel Exhaust 520</p> <p>14.4 Cancer 521</p> <p>14.5 Conclusions 528</p> <p>Acknowledgments 529</p> <p>References 530</p> <p><b>15 Endocrine‐Disrupting Chemicals 535</b></p> <p>15.1 Introduction 535</p> <p>15.2 Modes of Action 536</p> <p>15.3 Selected Disease Endpoints 542</p> <p>15.4 Conclusion 547</p> <p>References 548</p> <p><b>16 Formaldehyde and Other Saturated Aldehydes 555</b></p> <p>16.1 Background 555</p> <p>16.2 Single‐Exposure Health Effects 570</p> <p>16.3 Effects of Multiple Exposures 580</p> <p>References 597</p> <p><b>17 Lead and Compounds 627</b></p> <p>17.1 Introduction 627</p> <p>17.2 Physical/Chemical Properties and Behavior of PB and its Compounds 628</p> <p>17.3 Lead in the Environment and Human Exposure 631</p> <p>17.4 Lead Absorption 634</p> <p>17.5 Distribution 639</p> <p>17.6 Kinetics 642</p> <p>17.7 Biomarkers 648</p> <p>17.8 Health Effects 651</p> <p>17.9 Mechanisms Underlying Lead Toxicity 658</p> <p>17.10 Treatment of Lead Toxicity 661</p> <p>17.11 Summation 663</p> <p>References 663</p> <p><b>18 Mercury 677</b></p> <p>18.1 Introduction 677</p> <p>18.2 Chemistry 678</p> <p>18.3 Sources 678</p> <p>18.4 Environmental Exposures 679</p> <p>18.5 Kinetics and Metabolism 682</p> <p>18.6 Absorption 682</p> <p>18.7 Distribution 683</p> <p>18.8 Elimination 684</p> <p>18.9 Health Effects 685</p> <p>18.10 Prevention 688</p> <p>References 689</p> <p><b>19 Cardiopulmonary Effects of Nanomaterials 695</b></p> <p>19.1 Introduction 695</p> <p>19.2 Nanoparticles: Scope and Toxicity 696</p> <p>19.3 Lessons Learned 697</p> <p>19.4 Particle Characterization 698</p> <p>19.5 Relevant Exposure Scenario 698</p> <p>19.6 NP Exposure 699</p> <p>19.7 Cardiovascular Effects Following Pulmonary NP Exposure 700</p> <p>19.8 Types of NP in Common Usage 701</p> <p>19.9 Case Study: Subchronic Effects of Inhaled Nickel Nanoparticles on the Progression of Atherosclerosis in a Hyperlipidemic Mouse Model 709</p> <p>19.10 Human Data 710</p> <p>19.11 Future Studies 710</p> <p>19.12 Summary 710</p> <p>References 711</p> <p><b>20 Nitrogen Oxides 721</b></p> <p>20.1 Introduction 721</p> <p>20.2 Sources of NO<i>_x</i><b> </b>723</p> <p>20.3 Nitrogen Dioxide 725</p> <p>20.4 Nitric Oxide 753</p> <p>20.5 Nitric/Nitrous Acid 756</p> <p>20.6 Inorganic Nitrates 757</p> <p>20.7 Summary and Conclusions 759</p> <p>References 761</p> <p><b>21 Ozone 783</b></p> <p>21.1 Introduction 783</p> <p>21.2 Background on Exposures and Health‐Related Effects 787</p> <p>21.3 Effects of Short‐Term Exposures to Ozone in Humans 790</p> <p>21.4 Factors Affecting Responsiveness in Humans 805</p> <p>21.5 Mechanistic Studies in Laboratory Animals 807</p> <p>21.6 Studies of Populations Exposed to Ozone in Ambient Air 808</p> <p>21.7 Effects Observed in Studies in Laboratory Animals 816</p> <p>21.8 Effects of Other Pollutants on Responses to Ozone 821</p> <p>21.9 Effects of Multiday and Ambient Episode Exposures 824</p> <p>21.10 Cumulative Effects of Ambient Ozone Exposures 826</p> <p>21.11 Controlled Laboratory Exposure Studies: Animal Responses 829</p> <p>21.12 Standards and Exposure Guidelines 833</p> <p>21.13 Summary and Conclusions 835</p> <p>Acknowledgments 837</p> <p>References 838</p> <p><b>22 Pesticides 855</b></p> <p>22.1 Uses of Pesticides 855</p> <p>22.2 History of Pesticides 856</p> <p>22.3 Exposure to Pesticides 857</p> <p>22.4 Acute Poisoning with Pesticides 858</p> <p>22.5 Toxicity of Pesticides 859</p> <p>22.6 Pesticides as Endocrine Disruptors 867</p> <p>22.7 Pesticides and Developmental Neurotoxicity 868</p> <p>22.8 Legislative Framework 868</p> <p>22.9 Conclusion 870</p> <p>Acknowledgment 870</p> <p>References 870</p> <p><b>23 Radon and Lung Cancer 877</b></p> <p>23.1 Introduction 877</p> <p>23.2 History of Radon and Decay Product Measurement 880</p> <p>23.3 Indoor Measurements of ²²²RN 881</p> <p>23.4 Outdoor Measurements of ²²²RN 882</p> <p>23.5 Measurement of ²²²RN Decay Products 884</p> <p>23.6 Groundwater as a Source of Indoor ²²²RN 885</p> <p>23.7 ²²⁰RN (Thoron) the Other Radon 887</p> <p>23.8 Radon Epidemiology in Underground Mines and Lung Cancer Risk 888</p> <p>23.9 Residential Radon Epidemiology Lung Cancer Models and Lung Cancer Risk 890</p> <p>23.10 Lung Dosimetry 892</p> <p>23.11 Regulations and Guidelines for 222RN Exposure 897</p> <p>23.12 Radon and Smoking 898</p> <p>23.13 Childhood ²²²RN Exposure 899</p> <p>23.14 Other Natural Background Exposure 902</p> <p>23.15 Summary 903</p> <p>Glossary 903</p> <p>References 905</p> <p><b>24 Secondhand Tobacco Smoke 911</b></p> <p>24.1 Introduction 911</p> <p>24.2 Exposure to Secondhand Smoke (SHS) 912</p> <p>24.3 Health Effects of Involuntary Smoking 917</p> <p>24.4 Control of Exposure to Secondhand Smoke 921</p> <p>24.5 Summary 922</p> <p>References 923</p> <p><b>25 Sulfur Oxides (SO<i>_x</i>): SO₂, H₂SO₄, NH₄HSO₄, and (NH₄)₂SO₄ 927</b></p> <p>25.1 Introduction 927</p> <p>25.2 Sources and Exposures 928</p> <p>25.3 Health Effects of So₂ 932</p> <p>25.4 Long‐Term Multi‐Pollutant Effects Studies 939</p> <p>25.5 Exposures to and Health Effects of Acidic Aerosols 942</p> <p>25.6 Ambient Air Quality Standard 960</p> <p>25.7 Who Guidelines 960</p> <p>25.8 Overall Discussion 961</p> <p>25.9 Conclusions 962</p> <p>Acknowledgment 962</p> <p>References 962</p> <p><b>26 World Trade Center (WTC) Dust 973</b></p> <p>26.1 Introduction 973</p> <p>26.2 Post‐Collapse Human Inhalation Exposures to WTC Dusts 974</p> <p>26.3 Potential Dosimetry of WTC Dusts 978</p> <p>26.4 Associations Between WTC Dust Inhalation and Health Effects 980</p> <p>26.5 Studies of Biologic Responses to WTC Dusts 986</p> <p>26.6 Possible Roles of Minor Mass Components as Causal Factors for Observed Health Effects 991</p> <p>26.7 Roles of Major Mass Components as Potential Causal Factors for Observed Health Effects 992</p> <p>26.8 Conclusions 993</p> <p>Acknowledgments 995</p> <p>References 995</p> <p>Index 999</p>

<p><b>MORTON LIPPMANN, P<small>H</small>D,</b> earned a Bachelor of Chemical Engineering at Cooper Union, an MS in Industrial Hygiene at Harvard School of Public Health, and a PhD in Environmental Health Science at New York University (NYU) School of Engineering. He is currently a professor of Environmental Medicine at NYU School of Medicine. He has spent his adult life researching the health effects of particulate matter (PM) in ambient air on public health. He has published over 370 research papers and two reference texts on environmental health science. <p><b>GEORGE D. LEIKAUF</b> earned his A.B at the University of California, Berkeley, his Ph.D. in environmental health science at New York University, and finished his postdoctoral training at CVRI-University of California, San Francisco. Throughout his career, he has developed several in vitro approaches to the study of pulmonary epithelial, cellular, and molecular responses to toxicants. Currently, he is a professor of Environmental and Occupational Health at the University of Pittsburgh, Graduate School of Public Health.

<p><b>An Updated Reference on Human Exposure to Environmental Toxicants and A Study of Their Impact on Public Health</b> <p>With the fourth edition of <i>Environmental Toxicants: Human Exposures and Their Health</i> <i>Effects,</i> readers have access to up-to-date information on the study and science of environmental toxicology and public health worldwide. Practitioners and professionals can use this resource to understand newly discovered information on the adverse health effects of toxins and pollutants in air, water, and occupational and environmental environments on large human populations. <p>The fourth edition of this book is updated to reflect new knowledge and research on: <ul> <li>Performing risk assessments on exposed individuals</li> <li>Assessing the effects of toxicants and substances on large populations for health and medical professionals</li> <li>Patterns of human exposure to select chemical toxicants</li> <li>World Trade Center dust, agents for chemical terrorism, and nanoparticles</li> </ul> <p>For health professionals, including health authorities, public health officials, physicians, and industrial managers, who are seeking new research and techniques for managing environmental substances, this invaluable reference will guide you through in a thorough, easy- to-read manner.

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