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<p>Preface ix</p> <p>About the Companion Website xi</p> <p><b>1 Introduction 1</b></p> <p>1.1 Power System Faults 1</p> <p>1.2 What Causes Shunt Faults? 4</p> <p>1.3 Aim and Importance of Fault Location 16</p> <p>1.4 Types of Fault-Locating Algorithms 19</p> <p>1.5 How are Fault-Locating Algorithms Implemented? 21</p> <p>1.6 Evaluation of Fault-Locating Algorithms 25</p> <p>1.7 The Best Fault-Locating Algorithm 26</p> <p>1.8 Summary 26</p> <p><b>2 Symmetrical Components 27</b></p> <p>2.1 Phasors 28</p> <p>2.2 Theory of Symmetrical Components 29</p> <p>2.3 Interconnecting Sequence Networks 31</p> <p>2.4 Sequence Impedances of Three-Phase Lines 36</p> <p>2.5 Exercise Problems 41</p> <p>2.6 Summary 46</p> <p><b>3 Fault Location on Transmission Lines 49</b></p> <p>3.1 One-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 49</p> <p>3.1.1 Simple Reactance Method 52</p> <p>3.1.2 Takagi Method 54</p> <p>3.1.3 Modified Takagi Method 56</p> <p>3.1.4 Current Distribution Factor Method 57</p> <p>3.2 Two-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 58</p> <p>3.2.1 Synchronized Method 59</p> <p>3.2.2 Unsynchronized Method 60</p> <p>3.2.3 Unsynchronized Negative-Sequence Method 61</p> <p>3.2.4 Synchronized Line Current Differential Method 62</p> <p>3.3 Three-Ended Impedance-Based Fault Location Algorithms 62</p> <p>3.3.1 Synchronized Method 63</p> <p>3.3.2 Unsynchronized Method 65</p> <p>3.3.3 Unsynchronized Negative-Sequence Method 66</p> <p>3.3.4 Synchronized Line Current Differential Method 67</p> <p>3.4 Traveling-Wave Fault Location Algorithms 68</p> <p>3.4.1 Single-Ended TravelingWave Method 69</p> <p>3.4.2 Double-Ended Traveling-Wave Method 71</p> <p>3.4.3 Error Sources 71</p> <p>3.5 Exercise Problems 77</p> <p>3.6 Summary 93</p> <p><b>4 Error Sources in Impedance-Based Fault Location 95</b></p> <p>4.1 Power System Model 95</p> <p>4.2 Input Data Errors 96</p> <p>4.2.1 DC Offset 97</p> <p>4.2.2 CT Saturation 99</p> <p>4.2.3 Aging CCVTs 101</p> <p>4.2.4 Open-Delta VTs 101</p> <p>4.2.5 Inaccurate Line Length 104</p> <p>4.2.6 Untransposed Lines 104</p> <p>4.2.7 Variation in Earth Resistivity 106</p> <p>4.2.8 Non-Homogeneous Lines 107</p> <p>4.2.9 Incorrect Fault Type Selection 109</p> <p>4.3 Application Errors 109</p> <p>4.3.1 Load 109</p> <p>4.3.2 Non-Homogeneous System 111</p> <p>4.3.3 Zero-Sequence Mutual Coupling 111</p> <p>4.3.4 Series Compensation 118</p> <p>4.3.5 Three-Terminal Lines 119</p> <p>4.3.6 Radial Tap 120</p> <p>4.3.7 Evolving Faults 121</p> <p>4.4 Exercise Problems 122</p> <p>4.5 Summary 126</p> <p><b>5 Fault Location on Overhead Distribution Feeders 129</b></p> <p>5.1 Impedance-Based Methods 134</p> <p>5.1.1 Loop Reactance Method 135</p> <p>5.1.2 Simple Reactance Method 140</p> <p>5.1.3 Takagi Method 140</p> <p>5.1.4 Modified Takagi Method 141</p> <p>5.1.5 Girgis et al. Method 141</p> <p>5.1.6 Santoso et al. Method 143</p> <p>5.1.7 Novosel et al. Method 144</p> <p>5.2 Challenges with Distribution Fault Location 146</p> <p>5.2.1 Load 146</p> <p>5.2.2 Non-Homogeneous Lines 146</p> <p>5.2.3 Inaccurate Earth Resistivity 149</p> <p>5.2.4 Multiple Laterals 150</p> <p>5.2.5 Best Data for Fault Location: Feeder or Substation Relays 151</p> <p>5.2.6 Distributed Generation 152</p> <p>5.2.7 High Impedance Faults 156</p> <p>5.2.8 CT Saturation 156</p> <p>5.2.9 Grounding 156</p> <p>5.2.10 Short Duration Faults 157</p> <p>5.2.11 Missing Voltage 157</p> <p>5.3 Exercise Problems 158</p> <p>5.4 Summary 177</p> <p><b>6 Distribution Fault Location With Current Only 179</b></p> <p>6.1 Current Phasors Only Method 179</p> <p>6.2 Current Magnitude Only Method 184</p> <p>6.3 Short-Circuit Fault Current Profile Method 191</p> <p>6.4 Exercise Problems 193</p> <p>6.5 Summary 208</p> <p><b>7 System and Operational Benefits of Fault Location 209</b></p> <p>7.1 Verify Relay Operation 210</p> <p>7.2 Discover Erroneous Relay Settings 211</p> <p>7.3 Detect Instrument Transformer Installation Errors 217</p> <p>7.4 Validate Zero-Sequence Line Impedance 222</p> <p>7.5 Calculate Fault Resistance 225</p> <p>7.6 Prove Short-Circuit Model 226</p> <p>7.7 Adapt Autoreclosing in Hybrid Lines 227</p> <p>7.8 Detect the Occurrence of Multiple Faults 228</p> <p>7.9 Identify Impending Failures and Take Corrective Action 232</p> <p>7.10 Exercise Problems 232</p> <p>7.11 Summary 239</p> <p><b>A Fault Location Suite in MATLAB </b>241</p> <p>A.1 Understanding the Fault Location Script 241</p> <p>References 261</p> <p>Index 269</p>

<p><b>Swagata Das, PhD,</b> is an Application Engineer (Protection) at Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Texas, USA. She is an IEEE Senior Member and has published in peer-reviewed journals and presented her research on fault location and fault data analysis in transmission and distribution networks to industry professionals at several IEEE Power and Energy Society conferences.</p> <p><b>Surya Santoso, PhD,</b> is a Professor in Electrical Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin, USA. His research interests include power systems fault analytics and protection, power systems modeling and simulation, and power quality. He is an IEEE Fellow and a Distinguished Lecturer for the IEEE Power and Energy Society. <p><b>Sundaravaradan N. Ananthan, PhD, </b>is a Project Engineer (Protection) at Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Texas, USA. He has a background in power system protection and fault location in transmission and distribution networks and has published his research in many international journals and conferences.

<p><B>Covers both fundamental theory and state-of-the-art fault location algorithms for determining the location of faults in transmission and distribution lines </b></p> <p><i>Fault Location on Transmission and Distribution Lines</i> provides practical guidance on the applications of fault location algorithms in transmission and distribution lines. A single-volume compilation of ten years of research, this authoritative resource helps readers quickly determine the precise location of faults, analyze data to understand the cause of the fault, expedite service restoration, and improve overall power system performance and reliability. The authors describe the theory and derivation of fault location algorithms, explain the rationale behind the development of each algorithm, and illustrate their real-world application. Throughout the text, case studies on utility fault data are presented to clearly demonstrate all theoretical concepts. <p>The text begins by introducing the subject of faults, the aim and importance of fault location, and the concept of symmetrical components for fault calculations. It discusses the two main types of fault location algorithms and discusses the theory, input data requirements, and the sources of error in these algorithms. This book shows the additional benefits of fault location such as evaluating the system response, verifying relay settings, and validating the power system model. This comprehensive and up-to-date volume: <ul><li>Describes impedance-based and traveling-wave fault location algorithms</li> <li>Helps readers determine the best fault-locating algorithm for their system</li> <li>Contains several examples that show how to apply fault location algorithms</li> <li>Explains additional benefits of fault location to improve power system reliability </li> <li>Offers detailed analysis of voltage and current waveforms recorded by digital relays, digital fault recorders, and other electronic devices</li> <li>Contains numerous tables, illustrations, photographs, and case studies of both simulated and actual fault event data</li> <li>Includes fault location codes in MATLAB available via a companion website</li></ul> <p><i>Fault Location on Transmission and Distribution Lines: Principles and Applications</i> is essential reading for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students in Electrical Engineering programs, and is a valuable reference for practicing engineers, technicians, and researchers working in the areas of power system protection and automation.

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