List of Contributors xii <p>Introduction xvi</p> <p>Guide to Methods xviii</p> <p><b>Part I Methods for Microfouling 1</b></p> <p>Part Editor: Sergey Dobretsov</p> <p><b>1 Microscopy of biofilms 3</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Traditional light and epifluorescent microscopy 4</b><br /> <i>Sergey Dobretsov and Raeid M.M. Abed</i></p> <p>1.1 Introduction 4</p> <p>1.2 Determination of bacterial abundance 8</p> <p>1.3 Catalyzed reporter deposition fluorescent in situ hybridization (CARD-FISH) 9</p> <p>1.4 Suggestions, with examples, for data analysis and presentation 12</p> <p>Acknowledgements 13</p> <p>References 13</p> <p><b>Section 2 Confocal laser scanning microscopy 15</b><br /> <i>Koty Sharp</i></p> <p>1.5 Introduction 15</p> <p>1.6 Materials, equipment, and method 18</p> <p>1.7 Image acquisition 21</p> <p>1.8 Presentation 21</p> <p>1.9 Troubleshooting hints and tips 21</p> <p>1.10 Notes 23</p> <p>References 23</p> <p><b>Section 3 Electron microscopy 26</b><br /> <i>Omar Skalli, Lou G. Boykins, and Lewis Coons</i></p> <p>1.11 Introduction 26</p> <p>1.12 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 27</p> <p>1.13 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 35</p> <p>References 40</p> <p><b>2 Traditional and bulk methods for biofilms 44</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Traditional microbiological methods 45</b><br /> <i>Hans-Uwe Dahms</i></p> <p>2.1 Introduction 45</p> <p>2.2 Enrichment culture, isolation of microbes 45</p> <p>2.3 Counting methods 48</p> <p>2.4 Troubleshooting hints and tips 49</p> <p>References 50</p> <p><b>Section 2 Bulk methods 52</b><br /> <i>Sergey Dobretsov</i></p> <p>2.5 Introduction 52</p> <p>2.6 Measurement of biofilm thickness 53</p> <p>2.7 Biofilm dry weight determination 54</p> <p>2.8 Biofilm ATP content 55</p> <p>2.9 Troubleshooting hints and tips 56</p> <p>Acknowledgements 57</p> <p>References 57</p> <p><b>3 Biocide testing against microbes 58</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Testing biocides in solution: flow cytometry for planktonic stages 59</b><br /> <i>Tristan Biggs, Tom Vance, and Glen Tarran</i></p> <p>3.1 Introduction 59</p> <p>3.2 Method introductions 60</p> <p>3.3 Pros and cons 66</p> <p>3.4 Materials and equipment 67</p> <p>3.5 Methods 68</p> <p>3.6 Troubleshooting hints and tips 70</p> <p>3.7 Suggestions 71</p> <p>References 72</p> <p><b>Section 2 Biocide testing using single and multispecies biofilms 76</b><br /> <i>Torben Lund Skovhus</i></p> <p>3.8 Introduction 76</p> <p>3.9 Questions to answer when applying biocides 76</p> <p>3.10 Laboratory methods for testing biocide effect 78</p> <p>3.11 Field methods for testing biocide effect 81</p> <p>3.12 Troubleshooting hints and tips 83</p> <p>Acknowledgements 84</p> <p>References 84</p> <p><b>4 Molecular methods for biofilms 87</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Isolation of nucleic acids 88</b><br /> <i>Isabel Ferrera and Vanessa Balagué</i></p> <p>4.1 Introduction 88</p> <p>4.2 Materials 89</p> <p>4.3 Isolation of DNA from a biofilm 90</p> <p>4.4 Troubleshooting hints and tips 91</p> <p>References 91</p> <p><b>Section 2 PCR and DNA sequencing 93</b><br /> <i>Christian R. Voolstra, Manuel Aranda, and Till Bayer</i></p> <p>4.5 PCR and DNA sequencing: General introduction 93</p> <p>4.6 PCR 93</p> <p>4.7 Microbial marker genes – 16S 94</p> <p>4.8 DNA sequencing 95</p> <p>4.9 454 16S amplicon pyrotag sequencing 95</p> <p>4.10 Protocol 1: DNA extraction using the Qiagen DNeasy Plant Mini Kit 96</p> <p>4.11 Protocol 2: Full-length 16S PCR using the Qiagen Multiplex Kit 98</p> <p>4.12 Protocol 3: Analysis of full-length 16S genes 100</p> <p>4.13 Protocol 4: 16S amplicon PCR for 454 sequencing using the Qiagen Multiplex Kit 102</p> <p>4.14 Protocol 5: Trimming and filtering of 454 16S pyrotag sequencing 106</p> <p>4.15 Protocol 6: Taxon-based analyses 108</p> <p>4.16 Protocol 7: Phylogeny-based analyses 109</p> <p>References 111</p> <p><b>Section 3 Community comparison by genetic fingerprinting techniques 114</b><br /> <i>Raeid M.M. Abed and Sergey Dobretsov</i></p> <p>4.17 Introduction 114</p> <p>4.18 History and principles of the methods 115</p> <p>4.19 Advantages and limitations of fingerprinting techniques 116</p> <p>4.20 Materials and equipment 116</p> <p>4.21 Suggestions for data analysis and presentation 121</p> <p>4.22 Troubleshooting hints and tips 121</p> <p>Acknowledgements 122</p> <p>References 122</p> <p><b>Section 4 Metagenomics 125</b><br /> <i>Sarah M. Owens, Jared Wilkening, Jennifer L. Fessle, and Jack A. Gilbert</i></p> <p>4.23 Introduction and brief summary of methods 125</p> <p>4.24 Overview of metagenomics methods 125</p> <p>4.25 Method introduction 126</p> <p>4.26 Overview of DNA handling for BAC library construction 127</p> <p>4.27 BAC and Fosmid library construction 127</p> <p>4.28 Library handling, archiving, and databasing 128</p> <p>4.29 Facilitating library screening 128</p> <p>4.30 Time frame considerations 129</p> <p>4.31 Materials and equipment 129</p> <p>4.32 Detailed methods: DNA handling and BAC library construction 130</p> <p>4.33 Troubleshooting tips 131</p> <p>4.34 Suggestions for data analysis 132</p> <p>4.35 Suggestions for presentation of data 134</p> <p>Acknowledgements 135</p> <p>References 135</p> <p><b>5 Methods for biofilm constituents and turnover 138</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Destructive and nondestructive methods 139</b><br /> <i>Arnaud Bridier, Florence Dubois-Brissonnet, and Romain Briandet</i></p> <p>5.1 Introduction 139</p> <p>5.2 Pros and cons of destructive and nondestructive M-LSM methods for biofilm analysis 140</p> <p>5.3 Materials and equipment required for M-LSM 140</p> <p>5.4 Example of questions than can be answered with the method 140</p> <p>5.5 Suggestions for data analysis and presentation 148</p> <p>References 149</p> <p><b>Section 2 Biofilm formation and quorum sensing bioassays 153</b><br /> <i>Clayton E. Cox, William J. Zaragoza, Cory J. Krediet, and Max Teplitski</i></p> <p>5.6 Introduction 153</p> <p>5.7 Materials and equipment 157</p> <p>5.8 Methods 157</p> <p>Acknowledgements 165</p> <p>References 165</p> <p><b>6 Sampling and experiments with biofilms in the environment 168</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Field trials with biofilms 169</b><br /> <i>Jeremy C. Thomason</i></p> <p>6.1 Introduction 169</p> <p>6.2 Materials and equipment 170</p> <p>6.3 Method 170</p> <p>6.4 Troubleshooting hints and tips 171</p> <p>6.5 Suggestions for data analysis and presentation 172</p> <p>References 173</p> <p><b>Section 2 Sampling from large structures such as ballast tanks 175</b><br /> <i>Robert L. Forsberg, Anne E. Meyer, and Robert E. Baier</i></p> <p>6.6 Introduction 175</p> <p>6.7 Materials and equipment 178</p> <p>6.8 Troubleshooting hints and tips 180</p> <p>6.9 Analytical methods 180</p> <p>6.10 Suggestions for data analysis and presentation 182</p> <p>References 182</p> <p><b>Section 3 Sampling from living organisms 184</b><br /> <i>Christina A. Kellogg</i></p> <p>6.11 Introduction 184</p> <p>6.12 Historical background 185</p> <p>6.13 Advantages and limitations of collection techniques 185</p> <p>6.14 Protocols 186</p> <p>6.15 Suggestions for data analysis 187</p> <p>6.16 Troubleshooting hints and tips 187</p> <p>Acknowledgment 188</p> <p>References 188</p> <p><b>Section 4 Optical methods in the field 190</b><br /> <i>Richard J. Murphy</i></p> <p>6.17 Introduction 190</p> <p>6.18 Examples of the use of optical methods 191</p> <p>6.19 Spectral characteristics of biofilms 192</p> <p>6.20 The use of chlorophyll-a as an index of biomass of biofilm 193</p> <p>6.21 Multi-versus hyperspectral measurements (CIR imagery versus field spectrometry) 194</p> <p>6.22 Calibration of data to reflectance 195</p> <p>6.23 Suggestions for data analysis and presentation 195</p> <p>6.24 Methods 197</p> <p>6.25 Troubleshooting hints and tips 201</p> <p>References 202</p> <p><b>7 Laboratory experiments and cultures 204</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Static, constant depth and/or flow cells 205</b><br /> <i>Robert L. Forsberg, Anne E. Meyer, and Robert E. Baier</i></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 205</p> <p>7.2 Portable Biofouling Unit 207</p> <p>7.3 Pros and cons of the method 207</p> <p>7.4 Materials and equipment 208</p> <p>7.5 Suggestions for data analysis 209</p> <p>7.6 “Benchmark” bacteria and biofilm characterization 210</p> <p>7.7 Troubleshooting hints and tips 212</p> <p>References 212</p> <p><b>Section 2 Mixed population fermentor 214</b><br /> <i>Jennifer Longyear</i></p> <p>7.8 Introduction 214</p> <p>7.9 Pros and cons 215</p> <p>7.10 Fermentor 215</p> <p>7.11 Mixed species microfouling culture 215</p> <p>7.12 Utilizing the fermentor test section 218</p> <p>7.13 Troubleshooting, hints and tips 218</p> <p>References 219</p> <p><b>Part II Methods for Macrofouling, Coatings and Biocides 221</b></p> <p>Part Editors: Jeremy C. Thomason, David N. Williams.</p> <p><b>8 Measuring larval availability, supply and behavior 223</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Larval availability and supply 224</b><br /> <i>Sarah Dudas and Joe Tyburczy</i></p> <p>8.1 Introduction to measuring larval availability and supply 224</p> <p>8.2 Measuring settlement and recruitment 235</p> <p>References 238</p> <p><b>Section 2 Larval behavior 241</b><br /> <i>Jeremy C. Thomason</i></p> <p>8.3 Introduction 241</p> <p>8.4 Method for tracking larvae 242</p> <p>8.5 Troubleshooting hints and tips 245</p> <p>8.6 Suggestions for data analysis and presentation 246</p> <p>References 249</p> <p><b>9 Assessing macrofouling 251</b></p> <p><b>Section 1: Assessing fouling assemblages 252</b><br /> <i>João Canning-Clode and Heather Sugden</i></p> <p>9.1 Introduction 252</p> <p>9.2 A note on taxonomy 253</p> <p>9.3 Field methods 253</p> <p>9.4 Digital methods 258</p> <p>9.5 Functional groups 261</p> <p>9.6 Predicting total richness: from the known to the unknown 264</p> <p>References 267</p> <p><b>Section 2 Assessment of in-service vessels for biosecurity risk 271</b><br /> <i>Francisco Sylvester and Oliver Floerl</i></p> <p>9.7 Introduction 271</p> <p>9.8 Surveys of vessel hulls 272</p> <p>9.9 Sample and data analysis 277</p> <p>Acknowledgements 279</p> <p>References 279</p> <p><b>Section 3 Experiments on a global scale 281</b><br /> <i>Mark Lenz</i></p> <p>9.10 Experiments in ecology: the need for scaling up 281</p> <p>9.11 GAME – a program for modular experimental research in marine ecology 281</p> <p>9.12 Marine macrofouling communities as model systems 282</p> <p>9.13 Chronology of a GAME project 283</p> <p>Acknowledgements 289</p> <p>References 289</p> <p><b>10 Efficacy testing of nonbiocidal and fouling-release coatings 291</b><br /> <i>Maureen E. Callow, James A. Callow, Sheelagh Conlan, Anthony S. Clare, and Shane Stafslien</i></p> <p>10.1 Introduction 291</p> <p>10.2 Test organisms 293</p> <p>10.3 Test samples 294</p> <p>10.4 “Antifouling” settlement assays 295</p> <p>10.5 Fouling-release assays 299</p> <p>10.6 Adhesion assays for high-throughput screening 304</p> <p>10.7 Apparatus 310</p> <p>Acknowledgements 313</p> <p>References 314</p> <p><b>11 Contact angle measurements 317</b></p> <p><b>Section 1 Surface characterization by contact angle measurements 318</b><br /> <i>Doris M. Fopp-Spori</i></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 318</p> <p>11.2 Liquids in contact with solids 318</p> <p>11.3 Reproducible contact angle measurements 320</p> <p>11.4 Surface energy calculations 323</p> <p>References 324</p> <p><b>Section 2 Underwater contact angle measurement by the captive bubble method 326<br /> </b><i>Pierre Martin-Tanchereau</i></p> <p>11.5 Introduction 326</p> <p>11.6 Materials and requirements 327</p> <p>11.7 Method 329</p> <p>11.8 Surface energy 330</p> <p>Acknowledgements 330</p> <p>References 331</p> <p><b>12 Efficacy testing of biocides and biocidal coatings</b> <b>332</b><br /> <i>Christine Bressy, Jean-François Briand, Chantal Compère, and Karine Réhel</i></p> <p>12.1 Introduction 332</p> <p>12.2 Laboratory assays for biocides 333</p> <p>12.3 Field test methodology for biocidal coatings 337</p> <p>References 343</p> <p>13 Commercialization 346</p> <p><b>Section 1 Processing a new marine biocide from innovation through regulatory approvals towards commercialization 347</b><br /> <i>Lena Lindblat</i></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 347</p> <p>13.2 Basics about the regulatory landscape from the academic perspective 349</p> <p>13.3 Risk, risk assessment and risk management 349</p> <p>13.4 Future directions 353</p> <p>13.5 Conclusions 355</p> <p>References 356</p> <p><b>Section 2 From laboratory to ship: pragmatic development of fouling control coatings in industry 358</b><br /> <i>Richie Ramsden and Jennifer Longyear</i></p> <p>13.6 Introduction 358</p> <p>13.7 Laboratory coating development 358</p> <p>13.8 Laboratory bioassay screening 359</p> <p>13.9 Fitness for purpose (FFP) testing 360</p> <p>13.10 Field antifouling performance testing 361</p> <p>13.11 Test patch and vessel trials 363</p> <p>13.12 Performance monitoring 364</p> <p>13.13 Summary 365</p> <p>References 365</p> <p>Index 366</p>